U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report Violence in the Workplace, 1993-99 December 2001, NCJ 190076 ------------------------------------------------------- This report is one in a series. More recent editions may be available. To view a list of all in the series go to the http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pubalp2.htm#vw This file is text only without graphics and many of the tables. A Zip archive of the tables in this report in format (.wk1) and the full report including tables and graphics in .pdf format are available from: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/vw99.htm -------------------------------------------------------- Detis T. Duhart, Ph.D. BJS Statistician -------------------------------------------------------- Highlights 1993-99, violent crime in the workplace declined 44%, compared to a 40%-decrease in the overall rate of violent crime * Of the occupations examined, police officers experienced workplace violent crime at rates higher than all other occupations (261 per 1,000 persons). * The workplace violent crime rate for whites (13 per 1,000 in the workforce) was 25% higher than the black rate (10 per 1,000) and 59% higher than the rate for other races (8 per 1,000). This contrasts with overall violent crime (including both workplace and non-workplace violence) for which blacks have the highest rates. * Most workplace victimizations were intraracial. About 6 in 10 white and black victims of workplace crime perceived their assailant to be of the same race. * Private sector and Federal Government employees were victimized at similar rates. * Elementary school teachers experienced workplace violence at a rate lower than junior high and high school teachers (17 versus 54 and 38 per 1,000 in the workforce, respectively). * Almost 4 of every 10 robberies occurring while the victim was at work or on duty were committed against persons in retail sales or transportation. * More than 80% of all workplace homicides were committed with a firearm. From 1993 to 1999 the number of workplace homicides declined 39%. ------------------------------------------------------ Between 1993 and 1999 in the United States, an average of 1.7 million violent victimizations per year were committed against persons age 12 or older who were at work or on duty, according to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). In addition to the nonfatal violence measured by the NCVS, about 900 work-related homicides occurred annually. Work-place violence accounted for 18% of all violent crime during the 7-year period. Of the occupations examined, police officers experienced workplace violent crime at rates higher than all other occupations (261 per 1,000 police officers). College or university teachers were victimized the least among occupations examined (2 per 1,000 college teachers). This report focuses on nonfatal violence in the workplace -- rape and sexual assault, robbery, aggravated assault, and simple assault -- as measured by the NCVS. In addition, data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics are included to describe the nature of workplace homicide. All tables describe nonfatal victimizations occurring while at work or on duty, unless otherwise noted as including homicide. Violence in the workplace Rape and sexual assault, robbery, and homicide accounted for a small percentage (6%) of all workplace violent crime occurring between 1993 and 1999. The majority of workplace violent incidents, almost 19 of every 20, were aggravated or simple assaults. (See Glossary for definitions.) Violent crime was experienced by persons at work or on duty at a rate of 13 per 1,000 persons in the work-force. The simple assault rate (9 per 1,000 persons in the workforce) was more than 4 times the rate of all other categories of violent workplace crime. Homicides were less than 1% of all workplace violent crimes. Trends in workplace violence The percent decreases in the rates of workplace violence and of violent crime overall were similar between 1993 and 1999. There were 16 workplace violent victimizations (per 1,000 persons in the workforce) in 1993 compared to 9 in 1999 -- a 44% decrease. During the same period, overall violent crime victimization rates fell significantly (40%) from 55 to 33 per 1,000 persons. Each category of violent workplace crime was lower in 1999 than it had been in 1993. For example, persons working or on duty experienced 7 simple assaults per 1,000 persons in the workforce during 1999 versus 11 in 1993. ------------------------------------------ The National Crime Victimization Survey The NCVS is the Nation's primary source of information on the frequency, characteristics, and consequences of criminal victimization. One of the largest continuous household surveys conducted by the Federal Government, the NCVS collects information about crimes, both reported and not reported to police. The survey provides the largest national forum for victims to describe the impact of crime and the characteristics of violent offenders. This report updates Workplace Violence, 1992-96, a BJS Special Report, July 1998, NCJ 168634. Findings from the NCVS are also on the BJS website: . --------------------------------------------- Characteristics of victims of workplace violence Males were victimized more than females for both workplace violent crime and violent crime overall during 1993-99. The violent crime victimization rate for working or on duty males was 56% higher than the female rate (15 versus 10 per 1,000 in the work-place). Overall, 18% of violent crimes were workplace victimizations; 22% of all male and 15% of all female violent crimes were committed while the victim was working or on duty. Percent of violent victimizations Non- Gender All Workplace workplace All victims 100% 18% 82% Male 100 22 78 Female 100 15 85 Although NCVS data have consistently shown that blacks experience violent crime at rates higher than whites and persons of other races, violent workplace crime rates were highest among whites. While working or on duty, whites experienced 13 workplace victimizations per 1,000 in the work-force, a rate 25% higher than the black rate (10 per 1,000 in the workforce) and 59% higher than the rate among persons of "other" races.***Footnote 1: In this report, "other races" and "others" are defined as Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders, Alaska Natives, and American Indians considered together.*** The black workplace victimization rate was similar to that of Hispanics (10 per 1,000 in the workforce) and slightly higher than the rate for persons of "other" races. Persons age 20-34 experienced workplace violence at a rate higher than any other age group considered. Workers age 12-19 and 35-49 experienced workplace crime at similar rates (12 per 1,000 in the work- force). Workplace victimization rates for never married and divorced or separated persons were similar, and both were higher than the rates for married or widowed persons. Type of crime and gender Except for rape and sexual assault, males experienced all categories of workplace violent crime at higher rates and percentages than did females. About two-thirds of all robberies, aggravated assaults, and simple assaults in the workplace were committed against males. The rates of victimization (per 1,000 in the workforce) for these crimes were at least 54% higher for males when compared to those for females. Type of crime and race Whites experienced more than four-fifths of all rapes and sexual assaults (88%), robberies (81%), aggravated assaults (86%), and simple assaults (89%) occurring in the workplace. Per capita rates of aggravated assault in the workplace were similar for all racial categories. The rate of workplace simple assault for whites was higher than that for blacks and persons of other races. Blacks and whites were robbed while working or on duty at similar rates (1 per 1,000 in the workforce). Average annual rate of victimization in the workplace, by occupation, 1993-99 Occupation was measured by categorizing the victim's reported job at the time of the victimization into broad occupational fields. (See Methodology on page 11 for definitions.) Between 1993 and 1999 the rates of workplace violence for all occupational categories fell, and all the declines were statistically significant except for mental health. The percentage decline in the workplace victimization rate for the law enforcement field (55%) was somewhat greater than the decline in percentage among mental health employees (28%). Persons employed in law enforcement were victimized while at work or on duty at the highest rate of all occupations examined -- followed by persons working in the mental health field. Retail sales workers were victimized in the workplace at a somewhat higher rate (20 per 1,000 in the workforce) than those employed in the teaching, transportation, or medical field. Among the occupational groups examined, police officers accounted for 11% of all workplace victimizations and were victimized while at work or on duty at a rate higher than all other occupations examined (261 per 1,000), while college or university teachers were victimized the least (2 per 1,000). The workplace violent crime victimization rate for nurses was not significantly different from that for physicians; however, nurses experienced work- place crime at a rate 72% higher than medical technicians and at more than twice the rate of other medical field workers (22 versus 13 and 9, respectively). Professional (social worker/ psychiatrist) and custodial care providers in the mental health care field were victimized while working or on duty at similar rates (68 and 69 per 1,000, respectively) -- but at rates more than 3 times those in the medical field. Except for junior high school teachers, the workplace victimization rate for persons employed in special education facilities was highest among teachers. Elementary school teachers experienced workplace violence at a rate lower than that for junior high and high school teachers (17 versus 54 and 38 per 1,000 in the workforce, respectively). Junior high school teachers' workplace violent crime rate was somewhat higher than that of high school teachers. Private security workers' workplace violent crime rate was the lowest of all law enforcement workers (87 per 1,000 private security workers). Within the retail sales field, bartenders were victimized while working at a rate similar to that of gas station attendants and somewhat higher than that of convenience store workers. Within the transportation field, taxi cab drivers were victimized while working or on duty at the highest rate. Assault, by occupation Simple and aggravated assaults accounted for 94% of all workplace violent victimizations. There were 4 simple assaults for every aggravated assault occurring while the victim was at work or on duty. The rate at which persons in law enforcement experienced aggravated assault (29 per 1,000 in the workforce) was more than 3 times the rate for all other occupational fields. The workplace aggravated assault rate among mental health workers was somewhat higher than the rate among retail sales employees and significantly higher than the rate for the medical, teaching, transportation, or other fields. Mental health workers experienced simple assault at rates higher than all other occupational fields except law enforcement; persons working in the law enforcement field experienced simple assault at a rate at least twice that of all other occupational fields. Robbery, by occupation Almost 4 of every 10 robberies occurring while the victim was at work or on duty were committed against persons in the retail sales or transportation field. Transportation workers were robbed at a higher rate than any other occupational field reported (3 per 1,000 in the workplace). Employers of workplace violence victims For every 1,000 State, city, or local government employees, there were 33 workplace violent crimes experienced between 1993 and 1999. The victimization rate of these workers was highest when considering type of employer, while the self employed were victimized the least (7 per 1,000). Private company and Federal Government employees were victimized at similar rates. The rate of workplace victimization for government agency employees Federal, State, city, and local combined (29 per 1,000) was higher than the rate of victimization among private company employees and the self employed. Characteristics of victimization Time of victimization Overall, more workplace crimes occurred between noon and 6 p.m. than in any other 6-hour period of the day. Time of occurrence of violent crime in Percent of the workplace victimizations Day 59.5% 6 am-noon 21.6 Noon-6 p.m. 37.9 Night 35.7% 6 p.m. to midnight 24.7 Midnight-6 a.m. 11.0 Did not know 4.8% About 55% of all workplace crimes occurring against employees in the law enforcement field were committed at night. Law enforcement was the only field experiencing more workplace crime at night (between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m.) than during the day (between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m.). Retail sales workers experienced workplace crime at similar percentages regardless of the time of their shift. Victim's reaction to attack More than three-quarters of all workplace violent crime victims did not physically resist (no resistance, unarmed confrontation, and nonconfrontational tactics during the attack).***Footnote 2: Actions such as keeping still during the incident, yelling for help, attempting to appease or persuade the offender, and bargaining with the offender are all classified as "no physical resistance."*** Violent victimizations Victim's in the workplace, reaction 1993-99 to assailant Number Percent Total 12,328,000 100% No physical resistance 9,535,400 77.3 Threatened or attacked offender 333,200 2.7 Unknown method 2,459,400 19.9 Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding. Three percent of workplace violence victims defended themselves by threatening or attacking their assailant with a firearm or other weapon. Law enforcement officers victimized while working or on duty were more likely to threaten or attack their assailant with a weapon or firearm than any other victims of workplace violence (9% of all workplace crimes committed against them). Victims of workplace violence who threatened or attacked the offender Occupational With a weapon field Number Percent Medical 0* -- Mental health 0* -- Teaching 4,600* 0.4%* Law enforcement 218,700 9.2 Retail sales 31,200 1.6 Transportation 12,800* 2.4* Other 65,900 1.4 *Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases. See Methodology on page 11. Victim's injury Twelve percent of all workplace violence victims sustained injuries from the incident. Of those injuries sustained from workplace violence incidents, about 10 out of 11 were minor injuries.***Footnote 3: Minor injuries include bruises, black eyes, cuts, scratches, swelling, chipped teeth, and undetermined injuries requiring less than 2 days of hospitalization.*** Fifty-three percent of all injured victims were not treated or did not receive medical care for injuries sustained, while 26% received treatment from a medical office, clinic, or hospital. Weapon use Armed assailants committed a fifth of all workplace crimes. Armed assailants were more likely to use a firearm than a knife or other weapon such as rocks, clubs, bottles, or other objects (8% versus 6%, respectively). Transportation workers were victimized on the job by offenders with a weapon at a percentage somewhat higher (32%) than any other occupational field. Victim's Percent of workplace occupational victims victimize field offender with a we Transportation 31.7% Retail sales 23.3 Law enforcement 23.2 Other 22.0 Mental health 14.9 Teaching 10.9 Medical 10.5 Characteristics of offenders as reported by victims Although males made up 48% of the 1993-99 population, they were the offender in more than four-fifths of all workplace crime. Females were the offender less often than males (13% of all workplace crimes) and comprised 52% of the population during the period. Males were more likely to be victimized by males than by females in workplace violence. Males committed about 9 out of 10 male victimizations. In workplace violence against females, the offender was also more likely to be a male than a female. The percentage of males victimizing females (71%) was more than twice the percentage of females victimizing females (25%). Percent of violent victimi- zations in the workplace: Gender Gender of victim of offender Male Female Male 88.5% 70.8% Female 6.4 25.2 Unknown 5.1 4.0 Whites made up 84% of the 1993-99 population and were the offender in 55% of all workplace victimizations. Blacks comprised 12% of the 1993-99 population and were the assailant in 30% of all workplace crime. Most victimizations were intraracial for blacks and whites. In about 6 of every 10 workplace violence incidents involving a white or black victim and offender, the offender was perceived to be of the same race as the victim. Percent of violent victimizations Race of in the workplace: Race of victim offender White Black Other White 58.2% 25.5% 40.4% Black 27.0 58.6 35.3 Other 9.0 8.7 21.0 Unknown* 5.9 7.2 3.2 *Includes groups with offenders of more than one race. In addition, the percentages of black and white victims who perceived their offender to be of a different race were similar. Persons of other races were victimized by blacks and whites at similar percentages while working or on duty. Between 1993 and 1999 persons age 30 or older, when compared to younger persons, were perceived to have committed the highest percentage (43%) of crimes occurring at work or on duty. About a fifth of workplace offenders were perceived to be younger than age 20. A lone offender committed more than 8 of every 10 workplace crimes. About a third of victims of workplace violence believed the offender was drinking or on drugs at the time of the incident. About 36% of workplace victims did not know if the offender had been drinking or if the offender was on drugs at the time of the incident. Victims perceived that more than a quarter of all workplace violence offenders had not been drinking or were not on drugs. Percent of workplace victims perceiving whether the offender was drinking or using drugs Total 100 % No 27.4 Yes 35.1 Did not know 35.8 Unknown 1.7 Law enforcement and retail sales were the only occupations for which the offender was perceived to have used alcohol or drugs more than they were perceived to have not used alcohol or drugs. A higher percentage of offenders of workers in the mental health field were perceived to have not been drinking or on drugs than the offenders of workers in any other occupational field. Workplace violence victims were more likely to be victimized by a stranger than by someone they knew. In more than half of all workplace victimizations, a stranger was the perpetrator. About 1% of all workplace crime was committed by a current or former boyfriend, girlfriend, or spouse -- an intimate -- of the victim. Victim-offender Percent of relationship workplace violence Total 100 % Intimate 1.1 Other relative 0.5 Casual acquaintance 39.4 Stranger 55.6 Do not know 3.5 Workers in the mental health field and teachers were the only occupations more likely to be victimized by someone they knew than by a stranger. Law enforcement employees were victimized by a stranger more than any other occupation; about three-quarters of all law enforcement victimizations were committed by a stranger. Who reports workplace victimizations to the police Workplace victimizations against males were equally likely to be reported as not reported to the police. In contrast, workplace victimizations against women were less likely to be reported. Of the 4 million workplace crime incidents committed against females from 1993 through 1999, 40% were reported to the police. Workplace violence was reported to the police in similar percentages, regardless of race or Hispanic origin. Less than half of all workplace violence against whites was reported to the police. When comparing the percentage of reported and not reported victimizations for blacks, other races, and Hispanics, the apparent differences for these groups were not statistically significant. Workplace crime incidents in which the victim sustained an injury were reported to the police more than those workplace incidents occurring without injury to the victim (62% versus 44%, respectively). Workplace victimizations in which the victim was injured were more likely to be reported to the police than not reported. Crimes reported to the police Rape and sexual assaults were reported to the police at the lowest percentage (24%) when compared to other violent crimes in the workplace. The percentage of robberies and aggravated assaults reported to the police were similar. These crimes were reported to the police at a higher percentage than were other workplace violent crimes. About 4 in 10 simple assaults sustained while working or on duty were reported to the police. Category of violent victimization in the Percent reported workplace to the police Rape/sexual assault 23.6 % Robbery 71.4 Aggravated assault 64.3 Simple assault 41.1 More than 936,000 of the nearly 2 million workplace crimes committed yearly were not reported to the police. About 56% of all victimizations not reported to the police were reported to another official. About 5% of the workplace crimes not reported to the police were not reported because the victim believed the police could or would not help. When reporting is examined by occupational fields, victimizations against persons working in law enforcement (including the police) were most likely to be reported to the police, followed by victimizations of retail sales workers. Crime Occupational reported field to police Medical 39.6 % Mental health 22.9 Teaching 28.1 Law enforcement 74.8 Retail sales 53.9 Transportation 37.0 Other 38.7 Except for victims working in the mental health field, victims in the teaching profession were more likely than any other workers to report the crimes to a non-law enforcement official. Victims reporting to officials other than law enforcement most often informed persons such as guards and apartment managers of the crime. Workplace homicides Trend in workplace homicide Similar to the trend in nonfatal violent crime, the number of work-related homicides decreased between 1993 and 1999. There were 651 work-related homicides in 1999, a 39%-decrease from the 1,074 in 1993. Characteristics of victims of homicide in the workplace Males accounted for four-fifths of all workplace homicide victims. Persons between ages 25 and 44 were the victims of more than half of all workplace homicides. Whites experienced more workplace homicides than blacks or persons of other races between 1993 and 1999. Homicide victim/offender association During 1993-99, 84% of all workplace homicides were committed by offenders who were strangers to the victim, primarily during robberies or attempted robberies. Coworkers or former coworkers committed a higher percentage of homicides in the workplace when compared to customers or clients (7% versus 4% of all workplace homicides, respectively). The number of work-related homicides committed by a husband over the 7-year period was 40 times the number committed by a wife (122 versus 3, respectively). Personal acquaintances such as boyfriends or other acquaintances committed similar percentages of work-related homicides (1%). Characteristics of incidents of workplace homicide Most workplace homicides were committed with guns. Shooting accounted for more than 80% of all workplace homicides. Of all 4-hour periods in the day,the highest percentage of work-related homicides occurred between 8 p.m. and midnight, accounting for more than a fifth of all workplace homicides. Methodology Data for nonfatal crimes in this report come from the Bureau of Justice Statistics National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The NCVS measures personal and household offenses, including crimes not reported to the police. Information is obtained from a continuous, nationally representative sample of around 86,000 households comprising nearly 156,000 persons age 12 or older in the United States. The sample for this report includes those respondents who reported that they were working or on duty during the week prior to the interview. Victimizations measured are those violent crimes that occurred while working or on duty. Only for the occupational category of teaching, those crime victims who stated that they were on their way to or from work were also included in the analysis. This is done to make data for teachers comparable to estimates presented in Indicators of School Crime and Safety. Violent crimes against teachers in transit to or from work account for 10% of all workplace violent crime against teachers. Because the NCVS does not measure murder, the homicide data included in this report were drawn from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI). Standard error computations for NCVS estimates Comparisons of percentages and rates in this report were tested to determine if differences were statistically significant. Differences described in the text as higher, lower, or different and changes over time characterized as having increased or decreased passed a hypothesis test at the .05 level of statistical significance (95%-confidence level). That is, the tested difference in the estimates was greater than twice the standard error of that difference. For comparisons which were statistically significant at the 0.10 level of statistical significance (90%- confidence level), the terms somewhat different, marginally different, or slight difference is used to note the nature of the difference. Caution is required when comparing estimates not explicitly discussed in the text. What may appear to be large differences may not test as statistically significant at the 95%- or the 90%- confidence level. Significance testing calculations were conducted at the Bureau of Justice Statistics using statistical programs developed specifically for the NCVS by the U.S. Census Bureau. These programs take into consideration many aspects of the complex NCVS sample design when calculating generalized variance estimates. Estimates based on 10 or fewer sample cases have high relative standard errors. Because calculated standard errors for such estimates may not be accurate, care should be taken when comparing estimates based on 10 or fewer cases to other estimates. It is not advisable to make comparisons between estimates when both are based on 10 or fewer sample cases. Calculation of rates and annual levels The rates in this report are average annual rates for 1993-99. The numerator of a given number is the sum of violent crime that occurred while at work or on duty for each year from 1993 through 1999; the denominator is the sum of the annual workforce population of persons for these years (or the number falling within the particular demographic group being measured). The resulting proportions are multiplied by 1,000 to obtain the average annual rates. Average annual levels of workplace victimization are obtained by summing the number of workplace victimizations each year between 1993 and 1999 and dividing by seven. Population totals used in this report are calculated from estimates derived from the victimization survey. Included in the population are persons age 12 or older living in the households, including group quarters such as dormitories. Population estimates do not include children under 12, institutionalized persons, U.S. citizens living abroad, crew members of merchant vessels, and Armed Forces personnel living in military barracks. The percentages are calculated using the method similar to the one used for average annual rates. Terminology Workplace violence - The terms workplace violence, work-related violence, and violence occurring while working or on duty are used interchangeably in this report. Occupation -- The terms occupation, field, job category, and occupational field are interchangeable. Measurement of occupation by the NCVS Victims reported their job at the time of the victimization by answering the following question: Which of the following best describes your job at the time of the incident? Medical profession -- as a -- 01. Physician 02. Nurse 03. Technician 04. Other Mental health services field -- are your duties -- 05. Professional (social worker/psychiatrist) 06. Custodial care 07. Other Teaching profession -- were you employed in a -- 08. Preschool 09. Elementary 10. Junior high or middle school 11. High school 12. College or university 13. Technical or industrial school 14. Special education facility 15. Other Law enforcement or security field -- were you employed as a -- 16. Law enforcement officer 17. Prison or jail guard 18. Security guard 19. Other Retail sales -- were you employed as a -- 20. Convenience or liquor store clerk 21. Gas station attendant 22. Bartender 23. Other Transportation field -- were you employed as a -- 24. Bus driver 25. Taxi cab driver 26. Other OR 27. Something else 98. Residue 99. Out of universe Glossary Homicide -- the willful unlawful killing of one human being by another. Rape -- forced sexual intercourse, including both psychological coercion and physical force. Forced sexual intercourse means vaginal, anal, or oral penetration by the offender(s). This category includes incidents where the penetration is from a foreign object such as a bottle. Also included are attempted rapes, male and female victims, and heterosexual and homosexual rape. Sexual assault -- A wide range of victimizations distinct from rape or attempted rape. These crimes include completed or attempted attacks generally involving unwanted sexual contact between the victim and offender. Sexual assault may not involve force and include such things as grabbing or fondling. Sexual assault also include verbal threats. Robbery -- completed of attempted theft directly from a person, of property or cash by force of threat of force, with or without a weapon, and with or without an injury. Aggravated assault -- a completed or attempted attack with a weapon, regardless of whether or not an injury occurred, and an attack without a weapon in which the victim is seriously injured. Simple assault -- an attack without a weapon resulting in either no injury, minor injury (such as bruises, black eyes, cuts, scratches, or swelling) or an undetermined injury requiring less than 2 days of hospitalization. Simple assaults also include attempted assaults without a weapon. ----------------------------------------- The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. Lawrence A. Greenfeld is acting director. Detis T. Duhart, Ph.D., BJS Statistician, wrote the report under the supervision of Michael Rand. Craig Perkins provided statistical review. Tom Hester edited and produced the report. Jayne Robinson prepared the report for printing. December 2001, NCJ 190076 -------------------------------------- End of file 12/12/01 ih