U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Contacts between Police and the Public Findings from the 2002 National Survey April 2005, NCJ 207845 ---------------------------------------------------------------- This file is text only without graphics and many of the tables. A Zip archive of the tables in this report in spreadsheet format (.wk1) and the full report including tables and graphics in .pdf format are available from: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/cpp02.htm This report is one in a series. More recent editions may be available. To view a list of all in the series go to http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pubalp2.htm#cpp ----------------------------------------------------------------- In 2002-- 21% of surveyed residents had a contact with police 40% of contacts were in traffic stops 26% of contacts were to report crime or problem 1.5% of contacts involved police use of force 9% of white drivers were stopped 9% of black drivers were stopped 9% of Hispanic drivers were stopped 84% of drivers considered stop legitimate By Matthew R. Durose Erica L. Schmitt Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D. BJS Statisticians U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics BJS statisticians Matthew R. Durose, Erica L. Schmitt, and Patrick A. Langan wrote this report. Tina Dorsey edited and produced the report. Staff from the U.S. Census Bureau facilitated the final construction of the questionnaire, managed the field aspect of the data collection, processed the data, and provided the estimation specifications. Data presented in this report can be obtained from the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data at the University of Michigan, 1-800-999-0960. The archive Internet site can be accessed through the BJS site. Electronic versions of this and other reports are available from the BJS Internet site: Http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ Contents Foreword Highlights Incidence and prevalence of police-public contact Traffic stops Police use of force Methodology Questionnaire Foreword This publication represents the annual report to the Congress as required by Section 210402 of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, which mandates the collection of data by the Attorney General on the "use of excessive force by law enforcement officers." The report's findings are based on the Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS), a survey designed by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) to document contacts between police and the public that culminated in police using force. To date, national surveys of the public concerning its contacts with police have been conducted three times by BJS: * The first survey - described in the BJS publication Police Use of Force: Collection of National Data (NCJ 165040) documented levels of contacts with police during 1996. * The second survey - described in Contacts between Police and the Public: Findings from the 1999 National Survey (NCJ 184957) recorded police-citizen contacts in 1999. * The third survey - described here under the publication title Contacts between Police and the Public: Findings from the 2002 National Survey (NCJ 207845) covered interactions between police and the public in 2002. In addition to the three surveys, data collection activities undertaken by BJS pertaining to police use of force include the following: * In 2000 BJS published Traffic Stop Data Collection Policies for State Police, 1999 (NCJ 180776), which summarized results of a survey documenting, for example, the number of State police agencies in 1999 that routinely keep administrative records on police use of force in traffic stops. * In 2001 BJS updated its information regarding the maintenance of administrative records on police use of force with results summarized in Traffic Stop Data Collection Policies for State Police, 2001 (NCJ 191158). * In 2001 BJS published Policing and Homicide, 1976-98: Justifiable Homicide by Police, Police Officers Murdered by Felons (NCJ 180987), which summarizes and analyzes historical data on the number of persons killed by police in the line of duty. * In 2003 BJS fielded a revised version of the national survey titled Sample Survey of Law Enforcement Agencies, which included for the first time a battery of questions to State and local police agencies about the annual number of complaints they receive regarding excessive force by police (and the disposition of those complaints). Survey results are expected in 2005 under the publication title Citizen Complaints about Police Use of Force, 2002. This survey will be repeated in 2006 and every 3 years thereafter. * In 2004 BJS expanded its annual Web publication Homicide Trends in the United States to include the latest national statistics on justifiable homicides by police. * In 2005 BJS published State and Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2002 (NCJ 204030), summarizing results from the first survey of training academies ever conducted by BJS. Among other things the publication includes considerable information about the types of training police recruits receive on the use of force. Over the years, BJS has vastly expanded its production of statistical data on police use of force. BJS will continue to look for new and creative ways to meet the information needs of the public, policymakers, and criminal justice practitioners concerning this most vital topic. Lawrence A. Greenfeld Director Bureau of Justice Statistics Highlights Incidence and prevalence of contact with police * In 2002 an estimated 45.3 million U.S. residents age 16 or older about 21% of all persons of this age -- had at least one face-to-face contact with a police officer. This is the same rate of contact between police and residents found in the 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS). * On a per capita basis in 2002, the rate of police-resident contact for whites was about 15% higher than for blacks and about 26% higher than for Hispanics. The rate of contact for males was about 20% higher than for females. * In 2002 a total of about 76 million encounters, or about 1.7 contacts per person, occurred between the police and the 45.3 million persons with at least one contact that year. * Seventy-one percent of persons experiencing a contact with police during 2002 had no more than one contact. The remaining 29% of those with contacts reported having multiple contacts. Reasons for contact with police * Among the 45.3 million persons who had at least one police contact during 2002, 58.5% reported their latest (that is, most recent) contact that year was initiated by police. The remaining 41.5% of contacts between the public and the police were initiated by the resident or someone other than the police (such as a family member or acquaintance of the resident). * In 2002 the most common reason for police contact was being the driver of a motor vehicle that was pulled over by police, accounting for almost 17 million contacts. * About 25% of the 45.3 million persons with a face-to-face contact indicated the reason for the contact was to report a crime or other problem. Contacts culminating in arrest * In 2002 about 1.3 million residents age 16 or older -- 2.9% of the 45.3 million persons with contact -- arrested by police. Similarly, just over 1.3 million residents were handcuffed during their contact with police. Resident opinion on whether police acted properly * In 2002 the vast majority of the 45.3 million persons who had a contact with police felt the officer(s) acted properly (90.1%). Contacts with police in traffic stops * In 2002 approximately 192.7 million persons age 16 or older said they drive a few times a year or more. Of these 192.7 million drivers, an estimated 8.7% were pulled over by police in a traffic stop. The 8.7% represents 16.8 million stopped drivers. * Of the 16.8 million stopped drivers, an estimated 60.8% (10.2 million) were male and 39.2% (6.6 million) were female; 76.5% (12.8 million) were white, 11% (1.9 million) were black, 9.5% (1.6 million) were Hispanic, and 2.9% (.5 million) were drivers of other races. * The likelihood of being stopped by police in 2002 did not differ significantly between white (8.7%), black (9.1%), and Hispanic (8.6%) drivers. * An estimated 9.3% of drivers stopped by police said the reason for the stop was a burned out headlight, a loud muffler, or some other vehicle defect; 11.5% said the reason was a check for vehicle registration, insurance coverage, driver's license, or some other record; 1.3% said a roadside check for drunk drivers; 7.1% said a stopsign or stoplight violation; 4.4% said a seatbelt violation; 4.9% said they made an illegal turn or an illegal lane change; 54.8% said speeding; and 4.2% said they were stopped for some other traffic offense. * Of the 16.8 million stopped drivers, police issued a ticket to 58.6%, carried out a search of some kind (a physical search of the driver and/or a search of the vehicle) on 5%, handcuffed 2.8%, arrested 2.7%, used or threatened force against 1.1%, and used or threatened force that the driver deemed excessive against 1%. * During the traffic stop, police were more likely to carry out some type of search on a male (7.1%) than a female (1.8%), and more likely to carry out some type of search on a black (10.2%) or Hispanic (11.4%) than a white (3.5%). * The vast majority of drivers stopped by police (84%) said they had been stopped for a legitimate reason, and 88% of stopped motorists felt police had behaved properly during the traffic stop. Contacts with police involving force or the threat of force * Among the 45.3 million residents age 16 or older who had a contact with police in 2002, about 1.5% (664,500 persons) had a contact in which police used or threatened force against them. The 1.5% in 2002 is greater than the percentage in 1999. In 1999, 1% (0.98%) of persons with contact experienced force or the threat of force. * Among those who had contact with police, blacks (3.5%) and Hispanics (2.5%) were more likely than whites (1.1%) to experience police threat or use of force during the contact. * Force was used against 2.5% of 16-to-29 year olds who came into contact with police. The percentage was lower -- 0.9% -- for persons over age 29. * "Pushed" or "grabbed" by police was the type of force that characterized 42% of the 664,500 contacts in which force occurred. An additional 19% of the 664,500 force incidents involved police pointing a gun at the resident. * Of the 664,500 persons against whom force was used, about three-quarters characterized the force as excessive. * About 14% of the 664,500 persons who experienced force were injured as a result of the police action. * About 24% of the 664,500 persons involved in a police force incident argued with, cursed at, insulted, or verbally threatened the officer(s) during the incident. * An estimated 38% of the 664,500 persons involved in a force contact were arrested during the incident. * About 87% of the 664,500 persons experiencing the threat or use of force felt the police acted improperly. Less than 20% of these persons took formal action, such as filing a complaint or lawsuit with authorities. ------------------------------------------------------------- Force in the PPCS Force includes contacts in which the police officer pushed, grabbed, kicked, or hit the resident. Hitting was defined as striking with a hand or an object held in the officer's hand. Included in the definition of force were police dog bites, spray with pepper spray or a chemical, and a firearm pointed in the resident's direction. Also included was the threat to carry out any of these types of force. The survey provided an opportunity for respondents to express their opinion as to whether any police force or threat of force used against them was "excessive." The survey did not define "excessive" for the respondent. Respondents who said they had experienced police use or threat of force were asked whether they felt any of the physical force used or threatened against them was excessive. If a respondent said the force was excessive, he or she was asked about the specific type of physical force considered excessive. ------------------------------------------------------------ Incidence and prevalence of police-public contact In 2002 an estimated 45.3 million residents -- about 21% of the 216 million U.S. residents age 16 or older -- had at least one face-to-face contact with a law enforcement officer. In 2002 rates of contact between residents and the police translate into about 1 person with a contact for every 4.8 residents age 16 or older. These findings come from the 2002 Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS) which was conducted during the last 6 months of that year. Characteristics of residents having face-to-face contact with police Gender Males had a per capita rate of contact about 20% higher than females. About 1 out of every 4.3 males age 16 or older had a contact with a police officer in 2002. Among female residents age 16 or older, there was about 1 with a contact for every 5.2 females. Race/Hispanic origin Per capita rates of contact between residents and the police vary by the race and Hispanic origin of the residents. Whites experienced contact with law enforcement officers at the highest rate: about 1 person for every 4.5 non-Hispanic white residents age 16 or older experienced a contact. By contrast, about 1 person for every 5.2 black residents had contact, and at a lower rate, about 1 Hispanic for every 5.7 persons of Hispanic origin had a direct contact with a law enforcement officer. Per capita, the white rate of police-resident contact was about 15% higher than that for blacks and about 26% higher than that for Hispanics. Other races (primarily Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians, and Alaska Natives) experienced contact with police at lower rates than whites and blacks; on average, there was about 1 person with a contact for every 6.2 residents of other races. Age Residents in the youngest age groupings generally had higher rates of contact with police than those in the oldest age groups. Residents in the age groups of 18 to 19 and 20 to 24 had the highest rates of contact with police (about 1 for every 3.1 persons and about 1 for every 3.2 persons, respectively). By contrast, among those 50 or older, rates of contact equal about 1 person with a contact for every 7.1 persons of this age. Size of jurisdiction Residents of jurisdictions with fewer than 100,000 residents had a rate of contact with police which was 42% higher than those residing in jurisdictions of 1 million or more residents (212 versus 149 per 1,000 residents). Number of contacts residents had with police In 2002 a total of 75.7 million encounters occurred between the police and the 45.3 million persons with at least one contact that year. Of the 45.3 million persons with police contact during 2002: * 71% had one contact * 29% had 2 or more contacts * the average number of face-to-face contacts was 1.7. Resident gender In 2002 males were 48% of the U.S. population age 16 or older but 53% of the persons experiencing a face-to-face contact with police and 55% of those with two or more contacts that year. Resident race/Hispanic origin Whites made up 73% of the U.S. population age 16 or older but 77% of persons with a police contact in 2002. Black residents age 16 or older made up about the same percentage of persons having police contact (11%) as their percentage of the U.S. population (12%). Resident age Residents in their twenties had relatively high rates of contact with police. In 2002 persons age 20 to 29 were 24.1% of persons with police contact but 17.2% of the U.S. population age 16 or older. The mean age of persons age 16 or older with at least one face-to-face police contact during 2002 was 39; the median was 37 (not shown in table). Resident's description of contact with police during 2002 Survey respondents who said they had face-to-face contact with police during 2002 were asked to describe the nature of the contact. If persons had more than one contact, they were asked only about their latest (that is, most recent) contact that year. Reason for contact Among the 45.3 million persons who had at least one police contact during 2002, 58.5% reported their most recent contact that year was initiated by police. The remaining 41.5% of contacts between the public and the police were initiated by the resident or someone other than the police (such as a family member or acquaintance of the resident). In 2002 the most common reason for police contact was driving a motor vehicle that was pulled over by police, accounting for almost 17 million contacts. Another 1.2 million persons had police contact as a passenger in a stopped vehicle. The second most frequent reason for face-to-face contact with police was to report a crime or problem. Among the 45.3 million persons with police contact, about 1 in 4 contacted police because of a crime or other problem. Handcuffing or arresting the resident When an arrest occurs, the police do not always handcuff the suspect, and not all persons who are handcuffed are subsequently arrested. Handcuffs can be used to detain someone for a short time while police determine how to handle the situation. In 2002 about 1.3 million residents age 16 or older -- 2.9% of the 45.3 million persons with contact -- were arrested by police. Similarly, just over 1.3 million residents were handcuffed during their contact with police. During the 26.5 million contacts initiated by police, 4.3% of residents were placed under arrest. Less than 1% (0.8%) of residents were arrested during the 18.8 million contacts that were not police-initiated. About 1 in 5 persons suspected of criminal wrongdoing were either handcuffed (21.3%) or arrested (22.1%) by police. Persons who contacted police to report a crime or other problem experienced handcuffing or an arrest less than 1% of the time. Resident opinion on whether police acted properly In 2002 the vast majority of residents with police contact felt the officer(s) acted properly (90.1%). Persons whose contact was not initiated by police (93.6%) were more likely than those whose contact was police-initiated (87.6%) to feel the officer(s) acted properly during the encounter. Traffic stops Number of drivers pulled over by police in 2002 The number of drivers age 16 or older pulled over by police in a traffic stop in 2002 totaled 16.8 million persons. The 16.8 million includes stops of all kinds of motor vehicles -- for example, motorcycles, buses, and private and commercial cars and trucks -- and both personal and business travel. Driver gender Of the 16.8 million drivers stopped during the year, approximately 10.2 million, or 61%, were male, and 6.6 million, or 39%, were female. Driver race/Hispanic origin Of the 16.8 million stopped drivers, 12.8 million, or 77%, were white; 1.9 million, or 11%, were black; and 1.6 million, or 10%, were Hispanic. Driver age Most stopped drivers were adults under age 40. Ten percent were under age 20, and 50% were between 20 and 39 years of age. Stopped drivers between ages 40 and 49 accounted for 19%, and those age 50 or older, 21%. Likelihood of driver being stopped The 2002 U.S. population age 16 or older totaled 215.5 million persons. An estimated 89%, or 192.7 million, indicated they drive a few times a year or more. On at least one occasion in 2002, 16.8 million of these drivers were driving a car or other motor vehicle when it was pulled over by police in a traffic stop. The 16.8 million stopped drivers represent 8.7% -- nearly 1 out of 11 -- of the Nation's 192.7 million drivers. In other words, an estimated 8.7% of all U.S. drivers age 16 or older who say they drive a few times a year or more were pulled over by police in 2002. Driver gender Ninety-three percent of males and 86% of females age 16 or older said they drive a motor vehicle at least a few times a year. Male drivers (10.6%) were more likely than female drivers (6.8%) to be stopped by police in 2002. Driver race/Hispanic origin Among persons ages 16 or older in 2002, 93% of whites, 79% of blacks, and 78% of Hispanics indicated that they drive a motor vehicle at least a few times a year. The likelihood of being stopped by police in 2002 did not differ significantly among white (8.7%), black (9.1%), and Hispanic (8.6%) drivers. Whites were 76.2% of vehicle drivers and 76.5% of those pulled over; blacks were 10.5% of drivers and 11% of drivers stopped; and Hispanics were 9.7% of drivers and 9.5% of drivers stopped by police. In short, survey results indicated that in 2002, white, black, and Hispanic drivers had an equal chance of being pulled over by police in a motor vehicle stop. Driver age In 2002, 75% of all persons age 16 to 19 indicated they were drivers of a motor vehicle. Among persons in their twenties, thirties, forties, or fifties, 90% or more said they drove. Of those age 60 or older, 82% operated a vehicle. Generally, the younger the driver, the greater the likelihood that he or she was pulled over by police in 2002. The one exception was for teenage drivers and drivers in their twenties, who did not differ in their likelihood of being stopped by police -- 13.6% of drivers age 16 to 19 and 14% of drivers age 20 to 29. For those over age 30, the probability of being stopped by police in 2002 decreased with age: 9.8% of those in their thirties were pulled over by police, 7.8% of those in their forties, 6.8% of those in their fifties, and 3.8% of drivers age 60 or older. Reason for being stopped Surveyed drivers were asked what reason the officer gave for the stop: * Most (54.8%) said "speeding". * 9.3% said a "vehicle defect" (burned out taillight, loud muffler, and so forth). * 1.3% said a "roadside check for drunk drivers." (Police may not stop motorists randomly at roadblocks to search for drugs but may stop motorists randomly to search for drunken drivers.) * 11.5% said a "record check" of some sort (for example, a check for driver's license or insurance coverage or vehicle registration). * 4.4% said they were stopped for a "seatbelt violation" (for example, a passenger in the vehicle was not wearing a seatbelt, or a small child was not secured in a child safety seat). * 4.9% said "illegal turn/lane change" (for example, the driver did not use his/her signal properly, or turned the wrong way down a one-way street). * 7.1% said a stop sign or stoplight violation. * 4.2% said "some other traffic offense" (following too closely, reckless driving, lights not on, loud music, curfew violation, throwing a cigarette out a window, and so forth). * A small percentage of stopped drivers (2.1%) said police had not given a reason for the stop. Driver gender Females were more likely than males to say the reason for the stop was "speeding" (females 57.9%, males 52.8%). Males were more likely than females to indicate "vehicle defect" (males 10.6%, females 7.4%) and somewhat more likely to say "seatbelt violation" (males 4.8%, females 3.7%). Otherwise, there were no significant differences between the genders. For example, males (1.4%) and females (1.1%) were not significantly different in giving "roadside check for drunk drivers" as the reason. Driver race/Hispanic origin Whites were more likely than blacks and Hispanics to say the reason for the stop was "speeding" (whites 57%, blacks 50%, and Hispanics 44.4%). Hispanics were more likely than whites and somewhat more likely than blacks to say they were stopped for a "vehicle defect" (Hispanics 14%, whites 8.7%, and blacks 10.3%). Blacks (17.4%) were more likely than whites (11.3%) or Hispanics (7.8%) to say the reason they were stopped was for a record check. Driver age Speeding -- The most consistent finding was that drivers in the youngest age category (age 16 to 19) were more likely (59.6%) than drivers in their forties (53.4%), fifties (49.1%), and sixties or older (51.4%) to give "speeding" as the reason for being stopped. Vehicle defect -- Drivers in their teens (14.1%) and twenties (11.9%) were more likely than drivers in each of the older age categories to say the reason they were stopped was a "vehicle defect." Record check The most consistent finding was that teenage drivers (5.2%) and drivers in their twenties (8.8%) were less likely than drivers in each of the older age categories to say they were stopped for a "record check." -------------------------------------------------------------- Driver opinion on being stopped The vast majority of drivers pulled over by police (84%) felt they had been stopped for a legitimate reason. That opinion was not uniform across the different segments of the population. Driver gender Females (86%) were more likely than males (82%) to say that the stop was for a legitimate reason. Driver race/Hispanic origin The vast majority of blacks stopped by police (73%) felt they had been stopped for a legitimate reason. Nevertheless, blacks were less likely than whites (86%) and somewhat less likely than Hispanics (82%) to say the police had a legitimate reason for stopping them. --------------------------------------------------------------- Driver age There were no significant differences between drivers of one age and drivers of another age in terms of their opinion about whether they had been stopped for a legitimate reason. Warnings and tickets issued during traffic stops Police issued a traffic ticket to 58.6% of the drivers they stopped. Another 25.3% received some type of warning, either written or verbal. The remaining 16.1% did not receive a ticket or warning. Driver gender Females (26.9%) were more likely than males (24.2%) to receive a warning from police after being pulled over. Males (59.8%) were more likely than females to be ticketed (56.8%). Driver race/Hispanic origin Compared to black drivers (18.3%), Hispanic drivers (18.2%), and drivers of other races (20.3%), white drivers (27.4%) were more likely to be issued a warning during a traffic stop. Blacks (58.4%) were not significantly more likely than whites (56.5%) to be ticketed during a traffic stop. Hispanics (71.5%) were more likely than both whites (56.5%) and blacks (58.4%) to be issued a ticket. Hispanics were 9.5% of stopped drivers but 11.6% of those given a ticket. Comparatively, whites were 76.5% of stopped drivers and 73.8% of those ticketed, and blacks were 11% of drivers stopped by police and 11% of ticketed drivers. Driver age Generally, the older the driver, the lower the likelihood of receiving a ticket during a traffic stop. For example, teenage drivers (58.6%), and drivers in their twenties (64.3%), thirties (61.3%), or forties (58.5%) were each more likely than either drivers in their fifties (50.2%) or drivers age 60 or older (44.9%) to be ticketed. ------------------------------------------------------------ Time of day of traffic stop All other things being equal, if police practice racial profiling of black drivers, blacks as a percentage of all daytime traffic stops should be greater than blacks as a percentage of all nighttime stops. Why? Because police can identify the race of drivers more easily during the day than at night. To investigate the issue, daytime traffic stops were compared to nighttime stops. Of the 10.1 million white and black drivers stopped during the day in 2002, about 1.1 million -- 11% -- were black. Of the 4.6 million white and black drivers stopped at night, approximately 700,000 -- 15% -- were black. These results indicate that blacks were a smaller -- not greater -- percentage of daytime (11%) than nighttime (15%) traffic stops, providing no specific evidence of differential stops based on the visibility of the driver's race. ---------------------------------------------------------- Arresting the driver Among drivers stopped by police, 2.7% were arrested. Arrests occurred for a variety of reasons, such as -- * Failing a sobriety test * Having drugs or an illegal weapon on the driver or in the vehicle * Having an outstanding warrant for arrest * Assaulting the police officer. Driver gender Stopped males (3.7%) were more likely than stopped females (1.1%) to be arrested. Driver race/Hispanic origin Blacks (5.8%) and Hispanics (5.2%) stopped by police were more likely than whites (2%) to be arrested. Blacks were 11% of drivers stopped by police but 23.8% of drivers who were arrested, and Hispanics were 9.5% of stopped drivers but 18.4% of those arrested. Whites were 76.5% of stopped motorists and 58% of drivers arrested. Driver age Drivers in their twenties (3.7%) or thirties (2.9%) were more likely than drivers in their fifties (1.5%) to be arrested by police during a traffic stop. No other significant differences in the likelihood of arrest were found between drivers of different age groups. Handcuffing the driver Police handcuffed 2.8% of the drivers they stopped. Driver gender Males (3.8%) were more likely than females (1.1%) to be handcuffed during a traffic stop. Driver race/Hispanic origin Blacks (6.4%) and Hispanics (5.6%) stopped by police were more likely than whites (2%) to be handcuffed. Blacks were 11% of drivers stopped by police but 25.7% of drivers who were handcuffed, and Hispanics were 9.5% of stopped drivers but 19.4% of those handcuffed. Whites were 76.5% of stopped drivers and 55.1% of drivers were handcuffed. Driver age Drivers in their twenties (3.9%) were more likely than drivers in their forties (2.3%) or fifties (1.8%) to be handcuffed during a traffic stop. Police use of force against driver Based on survey results, 16.8 million drivers were stopped by police at least once in 2002. Surveyed drivers were asked whether, in their opinion, police had used or threatened to use "force" against them at any time during the traffic stop. Approximately 1.1% -- about 189,000 of the 16.8 million stopped by police -- indicated police had used or threatened to use force against them. Driver gender Males (1.6%) were more likely than females (0.4%) to say police used or threatened force against them during a traffic stop. Driver race/Hispanic origin During a traffic stop in 2002, police were more likely to use force against a black (2.7%) or Hispanic (2.4%) driver than a white (0.8%) driver. Driver age The younger the driver, the greater the likelihood that police used force. That is, where significant differences existed between younger and older drivers, they were generally in the direction of a greater likelihood of younger drivers experiencing police use of force. For example, drivers in their teens (2.9%) were somewhat more likely than drivers in their thirties (1.2%) and significantly more likely than drivers in their forties (0.8%) or fifties (0.5%) to experience force. Police use of excessive force against driver Of the estimated 189,000 drivers who had force used against them by police during a traffic stop, about 164,000 felt the force was "excessive". The 164,000 represent about 87% of the 189,000 drivers who experienced police use of force and about 1% of the 16.8 million drivers stopped by police. Driver gender Males (1.4%) were more likely than females (0.3%) to say police had used excessive force during a traffic stop. Driver race/Hispanic origin Black drivers (2.5%) stopped by police were significantly more likely than stopped white drivers (0.7%) to say that police used excessive force against them. Stopped Hispanics (2%) were somewhat more likely than stopped whites (0.7%) to feel that excessive force had been used. Driver age The younger the driver, the greater the likelihood the driver would indicate that police used excessive force against them. That is, where significant differences existed between younger and older drivers, they were always in the direction of a greater likelihood of younger drivers saying that excessive force had been used. For example, stopped drivers in their teens (2.9%) were somewhat more likely than drivers in their twenties (1.1%) or thirties (1%) to say excessive force was used during a traffic stop. Similarly, drivers in their teens (2.9%) were more likely than drivers in their forties (0.6%) or fifties (0.4%) to report excessive force during a motor vehicle stop. --------------------------------------------- Race of officers in traffic stops The 2002 PPCS uncovered evidence of black drivers' having worse experiences -- more likely to be arrested, more likely to be searched, more likely to have force used against them -- during traffic stops than white drivers. Were these worse experiences occurring regardless of the race of the officer who made the traffic stop? To answer this question, black and white drivers stopped by white officers should be compared, and black and white drivers stopped by black officers should be compared. Results from the 1999 PPCS suggested that the various racial disparities in traffic stop outcomes had no measurable relationship to the race of the officer who made the stop. In 1999 black drivers stopped by police generally had a worse outcome than white drivers, whether they were stopped by a white or a black officer. However, in the 2002 PPCS, the sample size of drivers stopped by black officers was too small for reliable analyses. Because of the small sample size, this report is not able to estimate whether the race of the officer who made the traffic stop was related to what occurred during the stop among drivers stopped in 2002. ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- Driver opinion on whether police acted properly An estimated 88% of the 16.8 million drivers stopped by police felt police had behaved properly during the stop. Driver gender Opinion was divided between the males and females stopped by police. When asked if police had behaved properly or improperly, males (87%)were less likely than females (90%) to say "properly." Driver race/Hispanic origin Of the nearly 12.8 million white drivers stopped by police, 90% felt police had behaved properly during the traffic stop. That compares to 78% of the 1.9 million black drivers and 85% of the 1.6 million Hispanic drivers stopped. Though vast majorities of blacks and Hispanics felt police had behaved properly, black and Hispanic drivers were less likely than white drivers to hold that opinion. Driver age While the percentage of drivers age 60 or older (93%) did not differ statistically from that of drivers in their fifties (90%), in believing that the police had acted appropriately, the older drivers were more likely than drivers in their teens (87%), twenties (86%), thirties (89%), or forties (88%) to feel police had behaved properly. ------------------------------------------- Searching the driver, vehicle, or both During a traffic stop police sometimes conduct a search for drugs, open containers of alcohol, stolen property, or other evidence of criminal wrongdoing. The search may be of the vehicle, of the driver, or of both the vehicle and the driver. In 5% of the 16.8 million traffic stops documented in the 2002 national survey, police searched the driver, the vehicle, or both. The 5% represent approximately 838,000 drivers who were physically searched and/or had their vehicle searched by police. Of the nearly 838,000 searches, 28% were searches just of the vehicle, 19% were searches just of the driver, and 53% were searches of both the driver and the vehicle. Driver gender Police were more likely to conduct a search of the vehicle and/or the driver in traffic stops of males (7.1%) than of females (1.8%). Driver race/Hispanic origin Black (10.2%) and Hispanic (11.4%) motorists stopped by police were more likely than whites (3.5%) to be physically searched or have their vehicle searched. Blacks were 11% of drivers stopped by police but 22.5% of drivers who were physically searched or whose vehicle was searched, and Hispanics were 9.5% of stopped drivers but 21.7% of those searched. Whites were 76.5% of stopped drivers and 54.1% of those who had some type of search. Driver age Drivers under the age of 40 had a greater likelihood than drivers age 40 or older of being frisked or having their vehicle searched. Drivers in the youngest three age categories -- teenage drivers (8.9%), drivers in their twenties (6.6%), and drivers in their thirties (6.4%) -- were all more likely than drivers in their forties (3.4%) and fifties (1.5%) to be physically searched or have their vehicle searched. Searching the driver Overall, 3.6% of stopped drivers were physically searched by police. Such body searches often involve the driver being frisked or lightly patted down by the officer. Sometimes, the search is more invasive, involving, for example, the officer's reaching into the driver's clothing. Driver gender Driver searches (as distinct from vehicle searches) were more common among male drivers (5.4%) than female drivers (0.9%). Driver race/Hispanic origin Black (8.1%) and Hispanic (8.3%) motorists stopped by police were more likely than white motorists (2.5%) to be subjected to a search of the driver. Blacks were 11% of drivers stopped by police but 24.6% of drivers who were physically searched, and Hispanics were 9.5% of stopped drivers but 21.9% of those physically searched. Whites were 76.5% of stopped drivers and 52.5% of the ones who were physically searched. Driver age The younger the driver, the greater the likelihood of a search of the driver. That is, where significant differences existed between younger and older drivers, they were always in the direction of a greater likelihood of younger drivers being physically searched. Drivers in their teens (6.1%), twenties (5.4%), and thirties (4.5%) were more likely than drivers in their forties (1.9%) to be frisked by police during a traffic stop in 2002. Searching the vehicle Police searched the vehicle in 4% of traffic stops. Driver gender Police were more likely to search a vehicle driven by a male (5.6%) than a female (1.6%). Driver race/Hispanic origin Police were more likely to search a vehicle driven by a black (7.1%) or Hispanic (10.1%) driver than by a white (2.9%) driver. Blacks were 11% of drivers stopped by police but 19.6% of drivers whose vehicle was searched, and Hispanics were 9.5% of stopped drivers but 24% of drivers of searched vehicles. Whites were 76.5% of stopped drivers and 54.9% of those whose vehicle was searched. Driver age The younger the driver, the greater the likelihood of a vehicle search. More specifically, where significant differences existed between younger and older drivers, they were always in the direction of a greater likelihood of a vehicle search for the younger drivers. Vehicles driven by teenage drivers (8.2%) were more likely to be searched than vehicles driven by those in their twenties (5%), thirties (5%), forties (2.8%), or fifties (1.1%). Searches and racial profiling One definition of racial profiling is "using race as a key factor in deciding whether to make a traffic stop." Another definition is "using race as a key factor in deciding whether, during a traffic stop, to search the vehicle or the driver." Survey findings reported above indicated the following about the likelihood of searches and the race or Hispanic origin of the driver: 1. Black (10.2%) and Hispanic (11.4%) motorists stopped by police were more likely than whites (3.5%) to be physically searched or to have their vehicle searched. 2. Black (8.1%) and Hispanic (8.3%) motorists were more likely than white (2.5%) motorists to be subjected to a physical search of the driver. 3. Police were more likely to search a vehicle driven by a black (7.1%) or Hispanic (10.1%) than by a white (2.9%). However, while the survey data can reveal these racial disparities, they cannot answer the question of whether the driver's race, rather than the driver's conduct or other specific circumstances surrounding the stop, was the reason for the search. The survey asked few questions about circumstances or driver conduct. For example, having drugs in plain view of police is a circumstance that would normally warrant a legal search of the vehicle. But since the survey did not ask drivers whether any drugs within plain view were in the vehicle, the analysis is necessarily limited. --------------------------------------------- Searches conducted by police during traffic stops Of the estimated 837,800 searches conducted by police in 2002, more than half -- 458,300 -- were apparently justified because police had obtained the driver's consent prior to performing the search. The remaining 45% (379,500) of searches occurred without the driver's consent. The percentage of these 379,500 nonconsent searches that may or may not be justified depends on the specific circumstances of each search. To determine how many of the 379,500 non-consent searches were potentially justified, two circumstances that typically warrant a nonconsent search were investigated: 1) a search conducted after a person has been placed under arrest, and 2) a search conducted when police have probable cause to believe the suspect committed a crime. To determine the latter, a search was treated as a probable-cause search anytime a search uncovered evidence of criminal wrongdoing, such as drugs, an open container of alcohol or other evidence. Analysis of the survey data indicated that 131,200 of the 379,500 non-consent searches were potentially justified. Of these 131,200 searches, 84,900 were searches conducted after the driver was arrested, and 46,300 were probable-cause searches that revealed evidence of a crime. For the remaining 248,300 non-consent searches, the driver was not searched following an arrest and the search did not uncover evidence of criminal wrongdoing. ----------------------------------------------- Search of driver, vehicle, or both Search with or without driver consent In some jurisdictions an officer need not have any suspicion to ask for permission to conduct a search. In other jurisdictions police departments require that the officer have at least a "reasonable suspicion" before asking for permission to conduct a search. In all jurisdictions, if the officer has "probable cause" to believe that the person or the vehicle contains evidence of a crime, the officer does not need to ask for permission. Of the 837,800 searches conducted during traffic stops in 2002, just over half, or about 458,300, were by consent. The 458,300 consent searches take one of two forms: 1) either the officer asked permission to search and the driver then granted it; or 2) the driver told the officer he/she could conduct a search without the officer first asking for permission. The remaining 45% of searches (379,500) were not by consent; either the officer had not asked permission before conducting the search, or the officer asked but the driver reported saying "no." Likelihood of search finding criminal evidence In 11.7% of the 837,800 searches, police found drugs, an illegal weapon, open containers of beer, or other evidence of a possible crime. The likelihood of finding criminal evidence was not significantly different between the 379,500 searches without consent (12.2%) and the 458,300 searches with consent (11.4%) (not shown in table). Search of driver Search with or without consent Nearly half (46%) of all body searches were without the driver's consent, according to surveyed drivers. Likelihood of search finding criminal evidence Of the 609,300 physical searches, 86% found no criminal evidence, according to surveyed drivers. The likelihood of finding criminal evidence was not significantly different between the 280,200 physical searches without consent (14.6%) and the 329,100 physical searches with consent (14.1%) (not shown in table). Search of vehicle Search with or without consent More than a third of all vehicle searches (38.5%) were conducted without driver consent. Likelihood of search finding criminal evidence Approximately 86% of vehicle searches found no evidence of criminal wrongdoing, according to surveyed drivers. Vehicle searches without consent (17.6%) were not significantly more likely than searches with consent (12.4%) to uncover evidence (not shown in table). Small sample sizes This report has presented separate statistics on each of four categories: physical searches with consent, physical searches without consent, vehicle searches with consent, and vehicle searches without consent. Within each of the four, it would be desirable to have comparative statistics by gender, race, and age -- for example, for physical searches without consent finding criminal evidence, comparing white and black drivers. But such detailed estimates would be based on samples too small to form reliable statistical comparisons. Only by combining physical searches and vehicle searches can additional comparisons be made. Searching the driver, vehicle, or both: Gender Search with or without consent The proportion of all searches (both physical and vehicle) that were without consent was not significantly different for males (46.4%) and females (38.6%). Likelihood of search finding criminal evidence The proportion of searches yielding criminal evidence was not significantly different for males (10.5%) than for females (19.2%). Searching the driver, vehicle, or both: Race/Hispanic origin Search with or without consent Searches (physical or vehicle) of black drivers (58.6%) were more likely to be without consent than searches of white drivers (39.1%). The percentage of all physical or vehicle searches conducted without the driver's consent was not significantly greater for Hispanics (46.2%) than for whites (39.1%). Likelihood of search finding criminal evidence Searches of black drivers or their vehicles were less likely to find criminal evidence (3.3%) than searches of white drivers (14.5%), and somewhat less likely than searches of Hispanic drivers (13%). Searching the driver, vehicle, or both: Age Search with or without consent Among drivers who were searched, those in their fifties (75.3%) were more likely to report a non-consent search than drivers in their twenties (39.8%) or thirties (42%). No other significant differences between age categories were found. Likelihood of search finding criminal evidence No comparisons are made between drivers of different ages because many of the samples on which the separate age categories are based are too small to form reliable estimates. Searching the driver, the vehicle, or both; arresting stopped drivers Survey data indicate that approximately 450,000 drivers were arrested after being pulled over by police in 2002. After an arrest is made, the police will often conduct a search of the arrestee. After an arrest is made during a traffic stop, the type of search conducted could be a physical search of the driver, a search of the driver's vehicle, or both. Of the nearly 450,000 drivers arrested during a traffic stop in 2002, three-quarters (74%), or slightly more than 329,000 drivers, also experienced a search of the driver, the vehicle, or both. An estimated 26% of these 329,000 searches were physical searches of the driver, 9% were vehicle searches, and 65% of drivers had both a physical and vehicle search conducted (not in a table). Searches subsequent to arrest In 2002, of the 329,000 drivers who were searched and arrested, 58% were searched after being arrested. Twenty-three percent of the 192,000 searches conducted subsequent to arrest were physical searches of the driver, 12% were vehicle searches, and 65% were searches of both the driver and the vehicle (not in a table). The remaining 42% of drivers searched and arrested were searched before being arrested. Of these 137,000 drivers who were searched prior to their arrest, 17% were physically searched, 7% had their vehicle searched, and 76% had both a physical and vehicle search conducted (not in a table). Search with or without consent Among the 329,000 drivers searched and arrested in 2002, 144,000, or 43.7%, were searched without their consent. Searches following an arrest (53%) were somewhat more likely than searches prior to arrest (30.9%) to be conducted without the driver's consent. This difference may be attributed to the common police practice of searching an arrestee and his or her belongings following an arrest; for those searches, police do not need to seek or obtain the driver's permission. Likelihood of search finding criminal evidence Evidence was found during a search of the driver, vehicle, or both for about a fifth of the 329,000 drivers who were searched and arrested in 2002. No comparisons of the likelihood of finding criminal evidence were made between drivers searched before an arrest and those searched after an arrest because the sample sizes for these categories were too small to form reliable estimates. Police use of force In the 2002 PPCS, respondents who said they had a face-to-face contact with police were then asked whether the police officer(s) used or threatened to use physical force against them during this contact. In 2002 an estimated 664,500 persons age 16 or older had a contact with police in which force was used or threatened against them. This estimate is about 1.5% of the 45.3 million people reporting face-to-face police contact during 2002. The estimate of 664,500 in 2002 represents an increase from 1999, when the PPCS that year estimated approximately 422,000 persons age 16 or older having a contact in which police used or threatened force. Also, the 2002 estimate of 1.5% experiencing the use or threat of force by police represents an increase from less than 1% (0.98%) in 1999. About three-quarters (75.4%) of those experiencing force in 2002 felt the force used or threatened by the police was excessive**In this report "use of force" includes threat of force unless otherwise indicated.** Among all persons who had a police contact in 2002, 52.8% were male. However, among those who reported that they were threatened with force or against whom force was used, 78.3% were male. Persons age 16 to 29 were 33.6% of the estimated 45 million who had a police contact but 57.5% of those experiencing force during a contact. The median age of those experiencing force was 26. Whites comprised 76.7% of all persons with a police contact, blacks 11%, and Hispanics 9.3%. About 56% of those experiencing force were white, 26% black, and 15.5% Hispanic. Likelihood of experiencing force Gender Among persons 16 years or older with a face-to-face contact, females (0.7%) were less likely than males (2.2%) to have had a contact with police that resulted in force. Race/Hispanic origin Among those persons age 16 or older with a face-to-face contact, blacks (3.5%) and Hispanics (2.5%) were more likely than whites (1.1%) to have reported that the police used or threatened force against them. Age Persons age 16 to 29 (2.5%) with police contact were more likely than those over age 29 (0.9%) to have had force used against them (not in table). Reason for contact Persons whose contact was police-initiated (such as a traffic stop) were more likely than those whose contact was not initiated by the police (such as asking police for assistance) to experience police use or threat of force (2.1% versus 0.6%). Police-initiated contacts were 58.5% of the 45.3 million contacts in 2002 but 83.5% of the 664,500 contacts involving police force. Persons whom police suspected of something or who had contact through a criminal investigation represented a relatively large percentage of the 664,500 force incidents, as compared to their representation of all persons with contact in 2002. Residents suspected of something by police accounted for a percentage of the force incidents (18.6%) that was 7 times higher than their portion of all contacts (2.6%). Persons whose contact occurred because of a criminal investigation accounted for a percentage of force incidents (13%) that was twice as high as their percentage of all contacts (5.8%). Type of force used Residents who experienced force or the threat force were asked to describe the type of force. An estimated 42% of the 664,500 force incidents involved the police pushing or grabbing the resident. An additional 8% of the force incidents involved the police kicking or hitting the resident. Among those persons involved in a force-related incident, 18.9% had police point a gun at them. Over half of the 664,500 residents experienced other types of force or threats, such as the threat to fire a gun or use chemical spray. Amount of force Residents involved in a force incident were asked if they felt any of the physical force used or threatened against them was excessive. Most (75.4%) of the 664,500 people involved in a police-use-of-force incident thought the force used or threatened was excessive. Whites (71.6%) involved in force incidents were not more likely than blacks (77.7%) to say the force was excessive. Among Hispanics with force used against them, 84.6% felt it was excessive. The differences between estimates for whites (71.6%), blacks (77.7%), and Hispanics (84.6%) were not statistically significant. Injuries from force Overall, about 14% of the approximately 664,500 persons involved in a force or threat-of-force incident were injured as a result of the police action. Twelve percent of whites, 21.5% of Hispanics, and 15.4% of blacks in force incidents were injured. These differences were not statistically significant. Characteristics of incident More than half of those involved in a force or threat-of-force incident were physically searched or, if they were in a traffic stop, had their vehicle searched. About 7% of the persons with force reported that during the course of the force incident the police found possible evidence of a crime (such as drugs, an open alcohol container, or a weapon on or near them or in their vehicle after a traffic stop). Forty percent of the 664,500 persons involved in a contact with force had at least one charge filed against them -- ranging from a traffic offense to possessing a weapon. A traffic-related offense was one of the most common charges (13.9%). Ten percent were charged with disorderly conduct. About 5% were charged with resisting arrest, and 2.5% were charged with a drug offense. Conduct of resident during force incident Persons who had contact with police were asked about their behaviors during the encounter that could have provoked the officer(s) to use or threaten force. Among the 664,500 persons experiencing police use or threat of force, 1 in 4 self-reported that they argued with, cursed at, insulted, or verbally threatened the officer(s). About 6% of those involved in a force incident resisted being handcuffed, arrested, or searched. Other actions reported by persons experiencing police force included disobeying or interfering with the officer(s) (6%), trying to get away (3%), and fighting the police (0.5%). There were too few cases of white, black, and Hispanic residents involved in a force incident to provide reliable estimates about their conduct during the police contact. Conduct of resident and the likelihood that police used or threatened force Persons who engaged in behavior that could have provoked police to use force were significantly more likely to experience the use or threat of force. Police used or threatened force against 1.1% of the 44.5 million persons who did not engage in behavior that could have provoked the officer(s) compared to: * 23% of the estimated 706,000 persons who argued with, cursed at, insulted, or verbally threatened the police * 34% of those who disobeyed or interfered with the officer(s) * 41% of those who tried to get away or escape * 30% of persons who pushed, grabbed or hit the officer(s) * 68% of persons who resisted being handcuffed, arrested, or searched * 27% of those who used some other physical behavior towards police. Force and arrests About 4 in 10 persons who had force used or threatened against them were arrested during the incident. Blacks (42.8%) and Hispanics (42.5%) who experienced police force were not significantly more likely than whites (33.5%) to be arrested. Force and handcuffing Forty-four percent of the persons experiencing force were also hand-cuffed during the incident -- including 41.1% of whites, 46.9% of blacks, and 47.5% of Hispanics. These differences were not statistically significant. Resident opinion on whether police acted properly The vast majority (87.3%) of the persons involved in police-use-of-force incidents felt the police acted improperly. There was some indication that blacks (93.5%) and Hispanics (94.6%) were more likely than whites (83.2%) to contend that the police acted improperly. Although 87% of persons reporting police use of force felt that the police had acted improperly, less than 20% of the total (about 102,000) took formal action. Formal actions include filing a complaint or a lawsuit. ---------------------------------------------------- Selected responses to the 2002 PPCS question: "What force was excessive?... Describe briefly" In 2002 about 501,000 of the 664,500 (75.4%) residents age 16 or older who experienced force felt the physical force used or threatened against them was excessive. Persons who characterized the force as "excessive" were asked to describe the type of force they considered excessive. The following are nine examples of what interviewers recorded: * Fight was over and officer kept yelling at resident * Forcing respondent's arms behind his back * Grabbed and forced resident into back of police car * Gun pointed at resident * Handcuffs put on too tight * Resident was running and police grabbed him by the arm and pushed him against a car * Officers used insulting words and did not read resident his rights * Officer pushed resident to the ground * Verbal threat to slam respondent's head into a wall. ------------------------------------------------- Methodology The 2002 Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS) was conducted as a supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). During the last 6 months of 2002 in which interviews were conducted, the NCVS sample consisted of 93,410 individuals age 16 or older. Of these, 10,902, or 11%, were NCVS non-interviews, though someone else in the household was interviewed. In addition to those not interviewed for the NCVS, 2,261 persons either refused to participate in the PPCS or said they were not available for the interview or the interviewer failed to indicate the specific reason for not conducting the interview. By far the most frequent reason for not completing the PPCS in 2002, accounting for 2,882 respondents, was the exclusion of the proxy interviews conducted for the NCVS when a person was unable, for physical, mental, or other reasons, to participate. BJS staff determined that caregivers and other proxy interviewees would have difficulty describing the details of any contacts between police and the sampled respondent. Another 455 non-English speaking respondents were also excluded from the 2002 PPCS. The PPCS failed to interview 16,500 persons and interviewed 76,910; this translates into an 82% response rate for the PPCS, compared to an overall response rate of 87% for the NCVS. Among the PPCS interviews conducted, 25,993 (34%) were in person and 50,917 (66%) were by telephone. The PPCS national sample, after adjustment for nonresponse, weights to a national estimate of 215,536,780 persons age 16 or older in 2002. Other information on survey methodology Unless indicated otherwise, differences documented in this report were significant at the .05-level. Certain differences were not significant at the .05-level but were significant at the .10-level. The terms "some indication" and "somewhat more likely" refer to differences significant at the .10-level. Regarding racial designations given in the report, "white" refers to non- Hispanic whites, "black" refers to non-Hispanic blacks, and "other races" refers to non-Hispanics in the "other races" category. White Hispanics, black Hispanics, and Hispanics of "other races" are categorized in the report under the heading "Hispanic." Due to small samples and concerns about confidentiality, the report does not provide separate statistics on each racial category that makes up "other races" (Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians, Native Hawaiians, and Alaska Natives). End of file 03/17/05 ih