U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 Erica Leah Schmitt Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D. Matthew R. Durose BJS Statisticians March 2002, NCJ 191548 ---------------------------------------------------------- This file is text only without graphics and many of the tables. A Zip archive of the tables in this report in spreadsheet format (.wk1) and the full report including tables and graphics in .pdf format are available from: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/cdsp99.htm ----------------------------------------------------------- Lawrence A. Greenfeld Acting Director BJS statisticians Erica Leah Schmitt, Patrick A. Langan, and Matthew R. Durose wrote this report. Tom Hester edited and produced the report. Numerous people made possible the development and administration of the Police-Public Contact Survey. Staff from the U.S. Census Bureau facilitated the final construction of the questionnaire, managed the field aspect of the data collection, processed the data, and provided the estimation specifications. In addition, a panel of the American Statistical Association met to review and discuss the survey procedures and questionnaire and subsequently issued a report on its recommendations. Assembled by Mark Cohen, Vanderbilt University, the advisory group included the following scholars: James Lynch, American University Professor of Justice, Law and Society; James Fyfe, Temple University Professor of Criminal Justice; Dennis Kenney, Director of Research at the Police Executive Research Forum; Stephen Mastrofski, George Mason University Professor of Administration of Justice; and Joel Garner, Director of the Joint Center for Justice Studies. At the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Lee Giesbrecht and David Banks advised BJS analysts in use of the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey. The International Association of Chiefs of Police, as well as other law enforcement executives and scholars, provided comments on the survey procedures and questionnaire. Data presented in this report can be obtained from the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data at the University of Michigan, 1-800-999-0960. Data in the archive can be accessed through the BJS website. Electronic versions of this and other reports are available from the BJS Internet site: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ Contents Foreword Highlights Characteristics of drivers stopped by police Likelihood of drivers being stopped Driver opinion on being stopped Reason for traffic stop Police searches Police use of force Appendix Methodology Questionnaire Foreword The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 mandates an annual report on the topic of police use of excessive force. In partial response to the mandate, the Bureau of Justice Statistics initiated the Survey of Police-Public Contact in 1999. In the national study U.S. residents age 16 or older were asked about any face-to-face contacts they may have had with police during 1999. The survey was carried out to document how many residents have such contacts, what the nature of these contacts was, whether police used force at any time during the contact, and (if so) whether the resident considered the force to be "excessive." Based on interviews with a sample of 80,543 persons (representing just over 209 million residents nationwide), the survey found that 1 in 5 Americans had a face-to-face contact with police in 1999. Many of these contacts occurred when people went to police to report a crime, to get help, or to let police know about a problem in their neighborhood. Among the different reasons why residents had contact with police, the most frequent one was traffic stops. This report examines in some detail the incidence and prevalence of traffic stops and the role of traffic stops in understanding use of force contacts between citizens and law enforcement officers. Traffic stops accounted for fully 52% of all police contacts in 1999. An estimated 19.3 million residents -- or about 1 in 10 licensed drivers -- were pulled over by police while driving a motor vehicle. Just over half of all traffic stops were for speeding. Of all the drivers stopped, 54% were ticketed, 6.6% were searched, 3% were arrested, seven- tenths of 1% (an estimated 139,300 stopped drivers) had some type of force used against them by police, and one-half of 1% (an estimated 100,000 stopped drivers) had "excessive" force used against them. In addition to traffic stops, the survey also asked respondents about any police use of force which they experienced in other, non-traffic contacts with police. According to the survey, police had used some type of force against an estimated 421,700 persons. The 421,700 consisted of 139,300 against whom the force occurred during a traffic stop (33% of the total), plus 282,400 against whom the force occurred during some other type of contact (such as reporting a crime to police, being a witness to or involved in a crime, and so forth). Police had used "excessive" force against 321,000 persons, as estimated from survey results. The 321,000 consisted of 100,000 against whom the "excessive" force occurred during a traffic stop (31% of the total), plus 221,000 against whom the force occurred during some other type of face-to-face contact. Lawrence A. Greenfeld Acting Director Bureau of Justice Statistics Highlights General characteristics of drivers stopped by police in 1999 * The 1999 U.S. population totaled 209.4 million persons age 16 or older. An estimated 89% of the population, or 186.3 million, were licensed drivers. Also in 1999, 19.3 million drivers age 16 or older, or 10.3% of all drivers, were stopped by police. * Among drivers age 16-24, blacks (17.1%) did not differ significantly from either whites (20.1%) or Hispanics (15.5%) in the probability of being stopped. White drivers age 16-24 were somewhat more likely than their Hispanic counterparts to be pulled over. * The average number of stops was greater for young black males (2.7) than young white males (1.7) and marginally greater than for young Hispanic males (1.8). Drivers' opinions of the legitimacy of the stops * Both blacks (74.0%) and Hispanics (81.6%) were less likely than whites (86.0%) to feel they were stopped by police for a legitimate reason. * Of drivers stopped more than once, whites (84.4%) were more likely than both blacks (70.2%) and Hispanics (70%) to feel the stop was legitimate. * Among male drivers age 16-24, blacks (75.7%) were not significantly less likely than whites (83.2%) or Hispanics (76.0%) to feel the stops were legitimate. Reason for traffic stop * Few drivers were not informed of the reason for being stopped by police. No significant differences were found between white (1.5%), black (2.0%), or Hispanic (1.2%) drivers in the likelihood of being informed by the officer of the reason for the traffic stop. * Males stopped for speeding were more likely to be ticketed (70.3%) than females (66.5%). * Drivers age 16-24 who were stopped for speeding were ticketed (73.6%) more often than drivers over 24 (66.8%). * Among drivers stopped for speeding, blacks (75.7%) and Hispanics (79.4%) were more likely than whites (66.6%) to be ticketed. Searches conducted by police during traffic stops * In 1999, 6.6% of traffic stops involved a search of the driver, the vehicle, or both. * Police were more likely to conduct a search of the vehicle and/or driver in traffic stops involving black male drivers (15.9%) or Hispanic male drivers (14.2%), compared to white male drivers (7.9%). * Of the nearly 1.3 million searches of vehicles and/or drivers conducted following traffic stops in 1999, 37% were accompanied by an arrest of the driver. Police use of force in traffic stops and in other situations * Approximately 422,000 persons age 16 or older said the police used or threatened to use force against them at least once during 1999. * Traffic stops accounted for 139,000 police use of force incidents, 33% of the 422,000 incident total. * Of the 139,000 force contacts that occurred during a traffic stop, the majority involved a male driver (98.2% of those contacts). Males accounted for 81.4% of the remaining 282,00 force contacts that occurred at times other than a traffic stop. * Persons under 25 were involved in just over half of all force contacts with police in 1999. * Most (76.1%) of the 422,000 people involved in a police use of force incident said the force was excessive. Characteristics of drivers stopped by police The 1999 U.S. population totaled 209.4 million persons age 16 or older. An estimated 89% of the population, or 186.3 million, were licensed drivers. Also in 1999, 19.3 million drivers age 16 or older were stopped by police. Driver gender The 186.3 million licensed drivers were almost evenly split among males (50.4%) and females (49.6%). By contrast, of the 19.3 million drivers stopped in 1999, 60.8% were male and 39.2% were female. Driver age Persons over 24 years of age were the majority of licensed drivers (85.5%), as well as the majority involved in a traffic stop (73.5%). Driver race/ethnicity Whites were 76.7% of licensed drivers and 77% of drivers stopped by police in 1999. Blacks were 9.8% of licensed drivers, but 11.6% of stopped drivers, while Hispanics accounted for 9.9% of licensed drivers and 8.4% of stopped drivers. An additional 3.6% of licensed drivers were persons of other races, who were also 3% of drivers stopped by police. Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity Young white males (those age 16-24) were 5.2% of licensed drivers and 12.3% of the 19.3 million drivers pulled over by police. Young black males accounted for 0.8% of licensed drivers and 1.6% of traffic stops, while young Hispanic males were 1.1% of licensed drivers and 2% of stopped drivers. Young males of other races formed 0.4% of persons with a license and 0.6% of drivers involved in a traffic stop. Likelihood of drivers being stopped Nationwide, 19.3 million drivers -- 10.3% of the 186.3 million licensed drivers -- were pulled over by police at least one time in 1999 while driving a motor vehicle. Of the 19.3 million drivers stopped by police in 1999, approximately 4 million were pulled over 2 or more times. These 4 million drivers made up 2.1% of the total number of licensed drivers in the United States. Driver gender Males (12.5%) were more likely than females (8.2%) to be stopped at least once, and males (2.9%) were also more likely than females (1.4%) to be stopped more than once. Driver age Compared to drivers over age 24 (8.9%), those 16 to 24 (18.9%) had a greater overall like- lihood of being pulled over by police and a greater likelihood of being stopped more than once (6% of drivers age 16-24 versus 1.5% of those over 24). Driver race/ethnicity Black drivers were somewhat more likely than white drivers to be stopped at least once (12.3% of blacks versus 10.4% of whites). Blacks were significantly more likely than both Hispanics (8.8%) and drivers of other races (8.7%) to be stopped at least once. There was also some indication that black drivers (3.0%) were more likely than both white drivers (2.1%) and Hispanic drivers (2%) to be stopped more than once. ------------------------------------ Racial differences in traffic stops may not signal racial profiling To form evidence of racial profiling, the survey would have to show (all other things being equal) -- Blacks and/or Hispanics were no more likely than whites to violate traffic laws, and Police pulled over blacks and/or Hispanics at a higher rate than whites. Because the survey has information only on how often persons of difference races are stopped, not on how often they actually break traffic laws, analysis of data from the 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey cannot determine whether or to what extent racial profiling exists ------------------------------------------ Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity Among persons age 16-24 -- * blacks (17.1%) did not differ significantly from either whites (20.1%) or Hispanics (15.5%) in the probability of being stopped * whites (20.1%) were somewhat more likely than Hispanics (15.5%) to be pulled over * no significant differences by race were found in the probability of being stopped more than once. Among persons over age 24 -- * blacks (11.2%) were significantly more likely than whites (8.9%) to be pulled over and somewhat more likely than Hispanics (7.8%) * blacks (2.2%) were significantly more likely than Hispanics (1.3%) and somewhat more likely than whites (1.5%) to be stopped more than once by police. Among male drivers over age 24 -- * blacks (13.8%) were more likely than whites (10.7%) and Hispanics (10%) to be stopped by police in 1999 * blacks (3.2%) were more likely than whites (2%) and somewhat more likely than Hispanic (1.8%) to be stopped more than one time. Among female drivers over age 24-- * whites (7.1%) and blacks (8.7%) were more likely than Hispanics (5.4%) to be pulled over at least once * blacks (8.7%) were more likely to be stopped than whites (7.1%) * the likelihood of being stopped more than once during 1999 did not differ significantly between the races. Average number of traffic stops Police stopped an estimated 19.3 million drivers at least once in 1999, and some of the 19.3 million were stopped more than once. The 19.3 million drivers experienced altogether 27 million traffic stops during the year. On average, 1.4 traffic stops per stopped driver occurred in 1999. The average number of stops was -- * greater for males (1.5) than females * greater for 16-24 year-olds (1.7) * greater for young black males (2.7) than young white males (1.7) * marginally greater for young black males (2.7) than young Hispanic males (1.8.). Driver opinion on being stopped An estimated 84% of drivers stopped by police, or 16.2 million drivers, felt they were pulled over for a legitimate reason. While the majority of drivers felt the police were justified in stopping them, opinion was not uniform across different segments of the population. Driver gender Males (82.3%) were less likely than females (87.3%) to feel the stop was for a legitimate reason. Males who were stopped once (83.7%) were more likely to feel the stop was legitimate than males stopped more than one time during 1999 (78.2%). Driver opinion on being stopped did not differ significantly for females stopped once (87.2%) and females stopped more than once (87.7%). Driver age The percentage of drivers who felt they were stopped for a legitimate reason did not differ significantly between those 16-to-24 years of age (83.5%) and those over 24 (84.6%). Drivers under age 25 and stopped multiple times (78.2%) were less likely than drivers over 24 (83.5%) to feel the stop was legitimate. Among persons age 16-24 -- * drivers stopped once (86.2%) were more likely to feel the stop was legitimate than those stopped more than one time (78.2%). Among persons over age 24 -- * the opinion of drivers stopped once (84.8%) did not differ significantly from those stopped two or more times (83.5%). Driver race/ethnicity Both blacks (74.0%) and Hispanics (81.6%) were less likely than whites (86%) to feel they were stopped by police for a legitimate reason. Drivers of other races (84.6%) were not less likely than whites to feel the stop was legitimate. There was no significant difference in driver opinion between blacks stopped once (75.1%) and blacks stopped more than once (70.2%). Of drivers stopped one time -- * blacks (75.1%) were less likely than whites (86.5%), Hispanics (84.9%) and drivers of other races (85%) to report feeling that the stop was legitimate. Of drivers stopped more than once -- * whites (84.4%) were more likely than both blacks (70.2%) and Hispanics (70%) to feel the stop was legitimate * drivers of other races (84.4%) were somewhat more likely to report that the stop was legitimate than black (70.2%) drivers. Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity Among male drivers age 16-24 -- * blacks (75.7%) were not significantly less likely than whites (83.2%) or Hispanics (76.0%) to feel the stop was legitimate * a marginally greater percentage of whites (83.2%) felt the stop was legitimate than Hispanics (76%) * Hispanics stopped more than one time (62.7%) were somewhat less likely to feel the stop was legitimate than whites (78.7%). Among male drivers over age 24 -- * the opinions of blacks (73.1%) did not differ significantly from Hispanics (79.4%) * whites (84.3%) were significantly more likely to feel the stop was legitimate than blacks (73.1%) * whites (84.3%) had a somewhat better opinion of the traffic stop than Hispanics (79.4%) * black (68%) and Hispanic (65.3%) drivers stopped two or more times were less likely to feel the stop was legitimate than white drivers (83.5%) stopped two or more times. Reason for traffic stop Drivers not informed of reason for traffic stop A relatively small percentage of stopped drivers (1.6%) said that police did not give them a reason for pulling them over. Driver gender The percentage of males and females (1.6% each) who were not given a reason for the traffic stop did not differ. Driver age A slightly larger percentage of drivers age 25 or older (1.7%) were not informed of the reason for the stop than drivers under 25 (1.2%). Driver race/ethnicity No significant differences were found between white (1.5%), black (2.0%) or Hispanic (1.2%) drivers in the likelihood of being informed of the reason for the traffic stop. ----------------------------------------- Driver opinion and reason for traffic stop In the 1999 survey, stopped drivers were asked whether, in their opinion, they had been stopped for a legitimate reason. Survey results indicate that driver opinion on the legitimacy of the traffic stop often depended on the reason the police gave for stopping the vehicle. Drivers stopped for speeding (51.2% of all stopped drivers) and drivers pulled over for a record/roadside check (11.5% of stopped drivers) were more likely to say they felt the traffic stop was legitimate (89.7% and 89.1%, respectively) than drivers stopped for other reasons. Drivers stopped for a vehicle defect (11.4% of traffic stops) were less likely to feel the stop was legitimate (84.4%) than those stopped for speeding or a record/ roadside check. Persons pulled over for some other traffic offense (seat belt violation, illegal turn, running a red light, etc.) constituted 22.7% of drivers stopped. These drivers were less likely (73.1%) than those stopped for speeding, a record/roadside check, or a vehicle defect to hold the opinion that the stop was legitimate. Relatively few drivers (3.2%) reported "Other" as the reason for the stop, which includes those who stated that police were providing a service, police were investigating a crime, they were being harassed by police, and other miscellaneous reasons. A smaller percentage of drivers in this category (57.5%) felt the traffic stop was legitimate. Drivers who felt traffic stop was Reason police gave for legitimate traffic stop Percent Total 100.0% 84.3% Speeding 51.2% 89.7% Roadside/record check 11.5 89.1 Vehicle defect 11.4 84.4 Other traffic offense 22.7 73.1 Other 3.2 57.5 ----------------------------------------------- Speeding The majority of drivers (51.2%) reported speeding as the reason they were stopped by police in 1999. These 9.9 million drivers constitute 5.3% of the 186.3 million licensed drivers in the United States. Of the 9.9 million drivers stopped for speeding -- * males constituted 58.6% of stopped speeders, and females were 41.4% * drivers age 16-24 were 27.9% of stopped speeders, and those over age 24, the remaining 72.1% * white drivers accounted for 80.5% of persons stopped for speeding; blacks, 9.8%; and Hispanics, 6.9%. (These findings are not shown in a table.) Driver gender Of the Nation's 93.8 million male drivers, 6.2% were stopped for speeding. That percentage is greater than the 4.4% of the Nation's 92.2 million female drivers. Female drivers pulled over by police were more likely to report that speeding was the reason for the traffic stop than stopped male drivers. Of the 7.5 million female drivers stopped by police, more than half (54.1%) said speeding was the reason. This percentage is greater than the figure for the 11.7 million male drivers stopped by police (49.4% or 5.8 million). Driver age Of the 27.1 million licensed drivers between ages 16 and 24, 10.2% were stopped for speeding. That percentage is greater than the 4.5% of the 159.3 million licensed drivers age 25 or older. Younger drivers were more likely to report being stopped for speeding than drivers over 24. Of the 27.1 million drivers under 25, 5.1 million were pulled over by police in 1999. Of the 5.1 million stopped drivers, 53.9% (2.8 million) said speeding was the reason. This percentage is greater than the comparable figure for stopped drivers over age 24 (50.3% of the 14.2 million stopped drivers, or 7.1 million). Driver race/ethnicity Of the 18.3 million licensed drivers who are Hispanic, 3.7% were stopped for speeding. That percentage is less than the 5.6% of the 142.8 million licensed white drivers and the 5.3% of the 18.1 million licensed black drivers in the United States. Of the 14.8 million white drivers stopped by police, 53.7% gave "speeding" as the reason. That percentage is greater than the 43.4% of the 2.2 million black drivers stopped, and marginally greater than the 42.1% of the 1.6 million Hispanic drivers stopped. Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity Among drivers age 16-24 -- * Of the 9.8 million younger white male drivers, 12.6% were stopped for speeding. That percentage does differ significantly from the 9.8% of the 9.3 million younger white female drivers stopped for speeding. * White female drivers stopped by police (62.5%) were more likely to report being stopped for speeding than stopped white male drivers (51.7%) * White male drivers (12.6%) had a greater likelihood of being stopped for speeding than Hispanic male drivers (7.9%). This difference also exists for white female drivers (9.8%) compared to Hispanic female drivers (5.3%) * White male (51.7%) and white female (62.5%) drivers stopped by police were more likely than their respective Hispanic male (40.3%) and Hispanic female (48.1%) counterparts to report speeding as the reason for being stopped. Drivers Percent of -- age 16-24 stopped for All drivers All licensed speeding stopped drivers Males White 51.7% 12.6% Black 50.6 10.1 Hispanic 40.3 7.9 Females White 62.5% 9.8% Black 64.7 9.4 Hispanic 48.1 5.3 Drivers stopped for speeding who were ticketed Overall, 54.2% of stopped drivers were issued a ticket. Among drivers stopped for speeding, the percentage ticketed was greater: 68.7%. This percentage does not necessarily indicate that speeders who were ticketed were actually ticketed for speeding. The 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey did not ask respondents who were ticketed to identify the specific reason for receiving the ticket. A driver could have been stopped for speeding, yet was ticketed for a different reason, such as a broken headlight or failure to wear a seat belt. The analysis can only determine the reason a ticketed driver was pulled over, not the reason the police had for issuing the ticket. Driver gender Males (70.3%) stopped for speeding were more likely to be ticketed than females (66.5%). Driver age Drivers age 16-24 (73.6%) who were stopped for speeding were ticketed more often than drivers over 24 (66.8%). Driver race/ethnicity Black (75.7%) and Hispanic (79.4%) drivers stopped for speeding were more likely than white (66.6%) speeders to be ticketed. Put another way: Blacks were 9.8% of drivers stopped for speeding but 10.8% of ticketed speeders. Hispanics were 6.9% of those pulled over for speeding but 7.9% of ticketed speeders. Whites were 80.5% of drivers stopped for speeding and 78.0% of ticketed speeders. (These findings are not shown in a table.) ------------------------------------------ Issuing tickets to young male and young female drivers Overall, male drivers stopped for speeding were more likely to receive a traffic ticket from police than female speeders. However, among drivers age 16 to 24 stopped for speeding, males were not more likely than females to be ticketed. Among drivers age 16-24 -- * White male speeders (71.2%) were not more likely than white female speeders (72.5%) to be ticketed * Black male speeders (81.5%) were not more likely than black female speeders (79.9%) to be issued a ticket. * Hispanic male drivers (92.4%) stopped for speeding were more likely to be ticketed than Hispanic female speeders (69.1%). Drivers age 16-24 stopped Percent who for speeding were ticketed Males White 71.2% Black 81.5 Hispanic 92.4 Females White 72.5% Black 79.9 Hispanic 69.1 ------------------------------------------ During a traffic stop, the police sometimes conduct a search of the vehicle, the driver, or both the vehicle and the driver. In 1999, 6.6% of traffic stops involved a search of the driver, the vehicle, or both. Of the nearly 1.3 million drivers searched, 35% experienced a search of the vehicle only, 20% experienced a search of the driver only, and the remaining 45% experienced a search of both the vehicle and the driver. Searching the driver, vehicle, or both Driver gender Stopped male drivers (9.4%) were more likely to undergo a vehicle and/or personal search than stopped females (2.3%). Driver age Drivers age 16-24 (10.8%) stopped by police were more likely to have their vehicle and/or person searched than stopped drivers over age 24 (5.1%). Driver race/ethnicity Stopped black (11%) and stopped Hispanic (11.3%) drivers were more likely to undergo one or both forms of search than stopped white (5.4%) drivers or drivers of other races (6.5%). Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity Police were more likely to conduct a search of the vehicle and/or driver in traffic stops involving male drivers who were black (15.9%) or of Hispanic origin (14.2%), compared to white male drivers (7.9%). (Not shown in a table.) Among male drivers age 16-24-- * the percentage of stopped blacks (17.2%) who had their vehicle and/or person searched did not differ significantly from either whites (13.7%) or Hispanics (19.7%) * Hispanic drivers (19.7%) stopped by police were somewhat more likely to undergo one or both forms of search than whites (13.7%). Among male drivers over age 24 -- * both stopped blacks (15.5%) and stopped Hispanics (11.1%) were more likely to be searched than stopped whites (5.8%) * black and Hispanic drivers were 5.3% and 3.7%, respectively, of all drivers stopped by police and accounted for 12.5% and 6.1%, respectively, of drivers who had their vehicle and/or person searched Percent of-- Drivers All drivers All driver over age stopped by or vehicle 24 police in 1999 searches Males White 34.0% 29.9% Black 5.3 12.5 Hispanic 3.7 6.1 * white drivers were 34% of stopped drivers and 29.9% of those searched. Searching the driver Driver gender Males (6.4%) were more likely than females (1.2%) to be physically searched during a traffic stop. Police searches Driver age Drivers age 25 or older stopped by police (3.3%) were less likely to experience a personal search than stopped drivers under 25 years old (7.2%). Driver race/ethnicity Stopped whites (3.5%) were less likely to be personally searched than either blacks (8%) or Hispanics (7%). Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity Stopped white male drivers were less likely than their black and Hispanic counterparts to be physically searched during a traffic stop. Among male drivers age 16-24-- * Stopped Hispanics (15.5%) were significantly more likely to experience a physical search by police than whites (8.8%) * Stopped blacks (12.8%) did not differ significantly from whites (8.8%) or Hispanics (15.5%) in the likelihood of experiencing a personal search * Stopped Hispanics were 2% of stopped motorists but 7.3% of those who experienced personal searches. Percent of-- All drivers All Drivers stopped by driver age 16- 24 police in 1999 searches Males White 12.3% 25.0% Black 1.6 4.7 Hispanic 2.0 7.3 Among male drivers over age 24-- * black drivers (11.4%) were more likely to be personally searched during a traffic stop than either white (4.0%) or Hispanic (5.8%) motorists * blacks in this age category were 5.3% of all traffic stops and experienced 13.9% of all physical searches; whites were 34% of stopped drivers and 31.8% of those searched. Percent of-- All drivers All Drivers stopped by driver over age 24 police in 1999 searches Males White 34.0% 31.8% Black 5.3 13.9 Hispanic 3.7 4.9 Searching the vehicle Driver gender Stopped females (1.9%) were less likely to have their vehicle searched than males (7.5%). Driver age Stopped drivers between the ages of 16 and 24 (8.9%) were more likely to experience a vehicle search than drivers over the age of 24 (4%). Driver race/ethnicity Stopped blacks (8.5%) and Hispanics (9.7%) were more likely to have their vehicle searched than stopped whites (4.3%). Hispanics were also more likely than drivers of other races (5.4%) to experience a vehicle search. Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity Stopped Hispanic drivers between ages 16 and 24 (14.5%) were more likely than young white drivers (8%) and somewhat more likely than young black drivers (8.8%) to experience a vehicle search. Among stopped male drivers age 16-24-- * Hispanics (18.1%) were more likely to have their vehicle searched than whites (11.5%) * no significant differences in the prevalence of vehicle searches were found between white (11.5%) and black (11.8%), nor between Hispanic (18.1%) and black (11.8%) drivers. Both black (8.4%) and Hispanic (7%) drivers over age 24 were more likely than white (3.1%) drivers over 24 to have their vehicle searched. Among stopped male drivers over age 24 -- * white drivers (4.4%) had their vehicles searched less frequently than both black (12.4%) and Hispanic (8.8%) motorists * black and Hispanic drivers were 5.3% and 3.7%, respectively, of drivers pulled over by police, and accounted for 12.5% and 6.0% of vehicle searches. Percent of-- All drivers All Drivers stopped by vehicle over age 24 police in 1999 searches Males 34.0% 28.1% White 5.3 12.5 Black 3.7 6.0 Hispanic Searches in connection with an arrest Of the nearly 1.3 million searches conducted in 1999, 37% were done in connection with an arrest. Whether the search preceded the arrest or followed it cannot be determined from the survey. Driver gender Stopped males who were searched (37.5%) were not more likely than stopped females (32.6%) to be arrested. Driver age Stopped drivers age 25 or older (42.5%) who were searched were significantly more likely to be arrested than their younger counterparts (29.4%). Driver race/ethnicity Of all drivers searched during a traffic stop, the chance of arrest did not differ significantly between white (37.3%), black (41.5%) and Hispanic (30.8%) drivers. Among searched male drivers -- * blacks (42.7%) were somewhat more likely than Hispanics (28.8%) to be searched and arrested * whites (38.0%) who were stopped and searched were not significantly less likely to be arrested than blacks (42.7%) or Hispanics (28.8%). Searches of arrested and nonarrested drivers In many jurisdictions, police officers are required to search the vehicle, the driver, or both when making an arrest during a traffic stop. Consequently, drivers who were arrested may have experienced a vehicle and/or personal search as a procedural step during the arrest process. Of all drivers arrested during a traffic stop, 82.7% experienced a vehicle and/or a personal search. By contrast, 4.3% of nonarrested drivers were searched by police. Driver gender Stopped male drivers, both arrested and nonarrested (88.0% and 6.1%), were more likely to be searched than stopped females (56.6% and 1.5%). Driver age Arrested and nonarrested drivers age 25 or older (78.8% and 3.0%) were less likely to be searched than stopped drivers under 25 (91.3% and 7.8%). Driver race/ethnicity Among arrested motorists -- * whites (80.1%), blacks (87.6%) and Hispanics (85.6%) did not differ significantly in their likelihood of being searched. Among nonarrested motorists -- * whites (3.5%) were less likely to undergo a search than blacks (6.8%) and Hispanics (8.2%) * black males (9.9%) and Hispanic males (10.6%) were more likely to be searched than white males (5.1%) * the likelihood of a black female being searched (2.5%) did not differ significantly from the likelihoods for both white and Hispanic females (1.1% and 3.2%, respectively). ------------------------------------------ Likelihood of finding criminal evidence in a traffic stop search During a traffic stop, it is common practice for police to search the driver, vehicle or both when making an arrest. However, few searches uncover criminal evidence, such as illegal weapons or drugs. Of the nearly 1.3 million drivers searched during a traffic stop, 37% (470,000) were also arrested. Of the 470,000 drivers who were searched and arrested, criminal evidence was found in 21.5% of the searches conducted. A significantly smaller percentage (8.6%) of the remaining 800,000 searched drivers who were not arrested said that criminal evidence was found during a vehicle and/or personal search. Drivers who were searched Criminal Arrested drivers Nonarrested drivers evidence Number Percent Number Percent Total 469,472 100.0% 802,810 100.0% Evidence found 100,936 21.5% 69,042 8.6 % No evidence found 368,536 78.5 733,768 91.4 ------------------------------------------ Police use of force In addition to gathering information on contacts between the police and the public during motor vehicle stops, the 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey also gathered data regarding other face-to-face contacts with police. Other face-to-face contacts include situations in which both the respondent contacted the police and the police contacted the respondent. A respondent may have contacted the police to report a crime or to ask for assistance, among other reasons. The police may have initiated contact with a respondent to investigate a crime, serve a warrant, or disseminate crime prevention information, among other reasons. Based on survey findings, nearly 44 million people had some type of face-to-face contact with police during 1999. Of that 44 million, 19.3 million were drivers in a traffic stop, and 24.5 million were involved in other forms of contact with police. (Those who had both types of contact were counted as stopped drivers in this report.) One purpose of the survey was to gather information about police use of force during both traffic stops and other face-to-face contacts between the police and the public. Specifically, respondents were asked whether the police officer(s) used or threatened to use force against them. Of the nearly 44 million people who had a face-to-face contact with police, approximately 1% said that police used force during the encounter (hereafter, "use of force" includes force and threat of force).**Note: 1 in 5 force encounters involved a threat only.** A smaller percentage of persons who were drivers involved in a traffic stop reported that police used force against them than persons involved in other face-to-face contacts with police. Of the 19.3 million drivers involved in a traffic stop, 0.7% said police used force against them, compared to a larger percentage (1.2%) of the 24.5 million persons who had other face-to-face contacts with police. Approximately 422,000 persons age 16 or older said the police used or threatened to use force against them at least once during 1999. Force involving a driver during a traffic stop accounted for 33% of all police use of force incidents; force occurring during other (nondriver) face-to-face encoun- ters accounted for the rest (67%). Use of force during traffic stops Driver gender Of the 422,000 force contacts, 367,000 involved males. Of the total number of males who said that force was used against them, more than a third (37.3%) said the incident occurred during a traffic stop. Traffic stops accounted for a much smaller percentage (4.6%) of the 55,000 force contacts involving females. Driver age Of the estimated 189,000 persons age 25 or older who said force was used against them in 1999 during a contact with police, 38% said the incident occurred during a traffic stop. Traffic stops accounted for 29% of the 233,000 force contacts involving younger drivers (ages 16 to 24). The difference between the two age categories is not significant. Driver race/ethnicity Approximately a third (34.3%) of the 249,000 force contacts involving whites took place during a traffic stop, based on when respondents were drivers. This does not differ significantly from the percentage for blacks (33.7% of the 95,000 force contacts involving blacks occurred during a traffic stop) or for Hispanics (33.5% of the 66,000 force contacts involving Hispanics occurred during a traffic stop). Use of force during traffic stops and other face-to-face contacts Based on respondent reports, police used or threatened force against approximately 139,000 drivers during a traffic stop in 1999. An additional 282,000 persons are estimated to have experienced force during other types of face-to-face contacts with police. Driver gender Males made up 53% of all those with at least one face-to-face contact with police in 1999. That same year 87% of all police use-of-force incidents also involved a male. Of the 139,000 force contacts against a driver estimated to have occurred during a traffic stop, the majority involved a male driver (98.2%). Males accounted for 81.4% of the 282,000 cases of force occurring outside of traffic stops. Driver age Of the 139,000 drivers estimated to have had force used against them during a traffic stop, 48.6% involved persons under age 25. Similarly, the same age group accounted for 58.6% of the 282,000 force contacts which occurred during other face- to-face contacts with police. Overall, younger persons age 16-24 were approximately a quarter of all persons estimated to have face-to-face contact with police in 1999. However, younger persons were about half of all contacts with police involving force. Persons age 25 or older were neither more nor less likely to be involved in force incident when stopped by police than during a nontraffic contact. This age group accounted for 51.4% of the force contacts involving drivers during a traffic stop and 41.4% of persons in incidents of force occurring during other contacts with police in 1999. Driver race/ethnicity White drivers were involved in 61.1% of the 139,000 force contacts which occurred during a traffic stop. Whites also accounted for 57.8% of the 282,000 force contacts which occurred during other contacts with police. In total, whites were 78.2% of persons who had a face-to-face contact with police in 1999 and were 58.9% of those persons who experienced force. Black persons were 10.6% of all contacts with police in 1999 and accounted for 22.4% of all persons who indicated that police used force against them. Just over 8% of police-public contacts involved a person of Hispanic origin, and these same persons were involved in 15.5% of all force contacts with police in 1999. Of both blacks and Hispanics who experienced force, the force was not more likely to occur during a traffic stop than during other types of contact with police. Use of excessive force In the 1999 survey, persons who said they had a contact with police in which force was used were asked whether, in their opinion, the force used was "excessive." Of the estimated 43.8 million persons who had a face-to-face contact with police, 0.7% said that police had used what they felt was excessive force. About half of 1% of the 19.3 million drivers involved in a traffic stop in 1999 felt they had excessive force used against them. The likelihood of experiencing a force contact which was considered "excessive" was higher for persons involved in other types of face-to-face contact with police (0.9%). Of the estimated 422,000 persons involved in a force contact, most (76.1%) said the force was excessive. Of the estimated 139,000 drivers who had force used against them during a traffic stop, 71.7% said the force was excessive. Of the remaining 282,000 force contacts that occurred during other contacts with police, 78.3% reported that the force used was excessive. Methodology Sampling In 1999 the PPCS respondents included all NCVS respondents age 16 or older, with the questionnaire administered following the NCVS screener and incident forms. During the last 6 months of 1999 in which interviews were conducted, the NCVS sample consisted of 94,717 individuals age 16 or older. Of these, 10,424, or 11%, were NCVS non-interviews, though someone else in the household was interviewed. In addition to those not interviewed for the NCVS, 986 persons either refused to participate in the PPCS or said they were not available for the interview or the interviewer failed to indicate the specific reason for non-interview. By far the largest reason for not completing the PPCS in 1999, accounting for 2,764 respondents, was the exclusion of the proxy interviews conducted for the NCVS when a person was unable, for physical, mental, or other reasons, to participate. BJS staff determined that caregivers and other proxy interviewees would have difficulty describing the details of any contacts between police and the sampled respondent. The PPCS failed to interview 14,174 persons and interviewed 80,543; this translates into an 85% response rate for the PPCS, compared to an overall response rate of 89% for the NCVS. Among the PPCS interviews conducted, 24,829 (31%) were in person and 55,672 (69%) were by telephone. The PPCS national sample, after adjustment for non-response, weights to a national estimate of 209,350,600 persons age 16 or older. Distributions by gender, race, ethnicity, and age parallel the resident population projections (middle-series) published by the Census Bureau (http://www.census.gov /population/ projections/nation/de tail /d1999_00.pdf) reflecting the accuracy of the case-level adjustments to the weights: Resident population Charac- Census Bureau PPCS teristic projection sample Gender Male 48.2% 48.2% Female 51.8 51.8 Race/ethnicity White 74.1% 74.1% Black 11.4 11.7 Hispanic 10.2 10.2 White 9.3 9.8 Black 0.6 0.2 Other* 0.3 0.1 Other 4.3 4.0 Age 16-17 3.8% 3.9% 18-19 3.8 3.8 20-24 8.6 8.7 25-29 8.7 8.8 30-34 9.4 9.5 35-39 10.7 10.8 40-49 19.8 20.0 50 or older 35.3 34.5 Total 210,604,000 209,350,600 *Other includes Asians, Pacific Islanders, Native Hawaiians, American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Other information on survey methodology Unless indicated otherwise, differences documented in this report were significant at the .05-level. Certain differences were not significant at the .05-level but were significant at the .10- level. The terms "somewhat" and "marginally" refer to differences significant at the .10-level. Regarding racial designations given in the report, "white" refers to non- Hispanic whites, "black" refers to non- Hispanic blacks, and "other races" refers to non-Hispanics in the "other races" category. White Hispanics, black Hispanics, and Hispanics of "other races" are categorized in the report under the heading "Hispanic." Due to small samples and concerns about confidentiality, the report does not provide separate statistics on each of the racial categories that make up "other races" (Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians, Native Hawaiians, and Alaska Natives). Related reading Data used in this report were previously used in the BJS report (Contacts between Police and the Public: Findings from the 1999 National Survey, NCJ 184957, February 2001). End of file 03/06/02 ih