National Economic, Social, and Environmental Data Bank ITEM ID : JS CRIMES SURVINM DATE : May 22, 1995 AGENCY : USDOJ, BUREAU OF JUSTICE STATISTICS PROGRAM : REPORTS ON CRIME, PRISONS, AND LAW ENFORCEMENT IN THE U.S. TITLE : Survey of State Prison Inmates, 1991 Source key : JS Program key : JS CRIMES Data type : TEXT End year : 1995 Date of record : 19950203 U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Survey of State Prison Inmates, 1991 By Allen Beck Darrell Gilliard Lawrence Greenfeld Caroline Harlow Thomas Hester Louis Jankowski Tracy Snell James Stephan BJS Statisticians Danielle Morton BJS Statistical Assistant March 1993, NCJ-136949 Full text with tables available from: BJS Justice Statistics Clearinghouse 1-800-732-3277 Box 6000 Rockville, MD 10850 Acknowledgments A team of Bureau of Justice Statistics analysts wrote this report. Team members were Darrell Gilliard, Lawrence Greenfeld, Thomas Hester, Louis Jankowski, Danielle Morton, Tracy Snell, and James Stephan, guided by Allen Beck and Caroline Wolf Harlow. Corrections statistics are prepared under the general direction of Lawrence Greenfeld. Thomas Hester edited this report. Yvonne Boston and Marilyn Marbrook, chief of the publications unit, produced it. Allen Beck and Caroline Wolf Harlow developed the survey questionnaire and monitored data collection. Marita Perez and Linda Ball of the Demographic Surveys Division, the Bureau of the Census, collected and processed the data under the supervision of Gertrude Odom and Lawrence McGinn. Christopher Alaura, Mildred Strange, Dave Pysh, and Carolyn Jenkins of the Demographic Surveys Division furnished programming support under the supervision of David Watt and Stephen Phillips. March 1993, NCJ-136949 The Bureau of Justice Statistics is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. Foreword The 1991 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities is a prime source of information about persons held in prisons across the Nation. Through lengthy interviews and detailed questions with a representative sample of State inmates, the survey complements the statistical series that rely on official agency data. The survey data provide a profile of who is in prison and how they got there. The 1991 survey, together with similar surveys conducted in 1974, 1979, and 1986, represents the largest single database on the Nation's prisoners and is an invaluable resource for evaluating the effectiveness of current incarceration policies and practices. This report presents statistical information in a format that can be easily understood by a nontechnical audience. We hope the readers of this report and forthcoming special studies derived from the 1991 survey will find these data useful and informative. This survey was made possible only through the cooperation and assistance of many committed professionals. We are grateful to officials in the departments of correction in the 45 States selected in the survey; to the wardens, superintendents, records managers, and correctional officers in the 277 facilities that provided resources and assistance in conducting the interviews; and to the U.S. Bureau of the Census staff who conducted the interviews and processed the data. We also acknowledge with pride the work of members of the BJS corrections unit who, as a team, designed the survey, monitored data collection, and analyzed the results. Lawrence A. Greenfeld Acting Director Allen J. Beck, Ph.D. Deputy Associate Director Contents Fourth nationally representative survey of State prison inmates: Unique information collected, usefulness and importance of that information, survey procedures, reliability of inmate interviews Profile of the State prison inmate population, 1991 and 1986: Sex, race, Hispanic origin, age, marital status, education, work before entering prison, income, and veteran status Offenses for which inmates were in prison, 1991 and 1986: Comparisons of offenses of male and female inmates, and of white, black, and Hispanic inmates Sentences that inmates were serving, time that they had served and expected to serve life in prison or death sentences, sentence enhancements, sentence length and time served according to offense Alien inmates: Countries of origin, age, sex, marital status, and education of inmates who were not U.S. citizens, their drug use and offenses for which they were in prison Family background: Inmates' childhood families, whether the parents had used drugs or alcohol, incarceration of family members, physical and sexual abuse Fathers and mothers in prison: Inmate parents with children under age 18, caregivers for inmates' children, women who entered prison pregnant, women's program participation Prior and current offenses of inmates: Criminal history and its statistical relationship to sex, race, and Hispanic origin; revoked probations or paroles for a previous sentence Victims of violent inmates: Characteristics of victims and offenders, number of victims per inmate, injuries sustained by victims, weapons used in violent crimes Inmate weapon possession and use: Types of weapons, crimes committed with guns, sources of guns Gang membership before entering prison: Characteristics of criminal gangs, gang activities, characteristics of inmates who were gang members Drug use and treatment: Types of drugs used at the time of the offense in 1991 and 1986, offenses committed to get money for drugs, race and sex comparisons among drug users, crack and cocaine use, drug treatment before and after imprisonment Tests for the virus that causes AIDS; past use of hypodermic needles: Self-reported HIV-positive rates, intravenous drug use Drinking and participation in programs to reduce alcohol abuse: Use of alcohol at the time of the offense, amount of alcohol drunk, characteristics of drinking inmates Inmate participation in prison programs: Types of prison activities, education or vocational programs, work assignments, hours spent working, pay Security level of inmate housing: Relation between security level inmate record of violent offenses, regional variations Explanatory notes: Discussion of the sample and standard errors, definitions and other information for a more detailed presentation of findings The Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities informs the Nation on a wide array of criminal justice issues For the first time in a national survey, inmates responded to questions about owning and using guns, gang membership, HIV testing, and entering prison pregnant In the summer of 1991, 13,986 inmates answered questions in face-to-face interviews. The prisoners, a scientific sample for the Nation, represented more than 711,000 adults held in State correctional facilities. In a session lasting from several minutes to more than an hour, each inmate described his or her criminal history, family and employment background, and any involvement with drugs and alcohol. Each inmate also reported on participation in correctional programs and past education. Inmates convicted of a violent crime were asked about their victim. After the last such survey in 1986, the prison population had grown 58%, more than 261,000 additional prisoners. In 1991 the incarceration rate -- the number sentenced to more than a year in State facilities for each 100,000 residents in the general population -- was about 287 per 100,000; 5 years earlier, the rate was 207 prisoners per 100,000 residents. Simultaneous with the State inmate survey, a Federal prison survey interviewed 8,500 inmates Together the Federal and State studies provide the most comprehensive information on the Nation's prisoners ever obtained. Used alone or analyzed together with the three previous surveys of State prison inmates conducted in 1974, 1979, and 1986, these 1991 data serve many purposes. As national data they provide a benchmark against which States may compare their prison populations, perhaps to judge the results of particular policies. State prison authorities may also use the surveys as a source for a uniform set of measures and descriptors. The potential benefits of national data will touch a large number of crucial topics. Persons seeking to understand the factors that contribute to or prevent crime have in these data a readily available wealth of background and empirical evidence that can bear close scrutiny. When considered with other survey findings or population studies, the data garnered by the surveys of inmates will enable scholars, policymakers, and practitioners to test many assertions and conclusions. The following are examples of issues that can be examined using data from the 1991 survey: *Relationships among demographic and criminal justice characteristics of State inmates *Responses by the criminal justice system to young offenders and the later patterns of offending *Prison sentences and time served as related to turnover of prison population *Identifying patterns of offending for high-risk offenders in prison *Generational or cohort aspects of criminal careers, types of crimes committed, and the responses of the criminal justice system *Violent crime events understood in terms of time, place, persons involved, and outcome *Family history as a factor in criminal history of serious offenders in State prison *Gang membership as an aggravating element in crime *Roles of drug and alcohol use in crime and in the criminal histories of offenders *Statistical descriptions of firearm possession, handgun use in a crime, and sources of handguns, for both violent and nonviolent inmates. Experienced personnel of the Bureau of the Census conducted the confidential interviews. Working on behalf of the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), trained Bureau of the Census interviewers conducted the interviews in 277 prisons nationwide. At each institution, inmates were chosen systematically from the day's roster, with a specific "take rate" or selection probability being applied. Many of the interviewers who conducted the 1991 interviews had also staffed the previous surveys, and many had participated in the 1989 survey of local jail inmates. The interviewers met the prisoners alone, often in rooms out of the sight, as well as beyond the hearing, of correctional officers and other inmates. The inmates received written and verbal guarantees that the information they reported would be kept confidential. They were told that they would be neither compelled to participate nor rewarded for participating. If inmates could not speak English, they could bring other inmates to translate or could request an interviewer who spoke their language. Altogether, 94% of the selected inmates were interviewed. Information gained through interviews with prisoners is generally reliable Personal interviewing of prisoners is the most efficient means -- and for some information, the only means -- to gather certain data with a national scope. Independent researchers, studying how truthfully prison inmates respond to survey questions, have found that the responses generally agree with data from official records. Also, findings aggregated from the inmate surveys do not differ appreciably from information reported by correctional authorities, and information from separate surveys fit coherent and consistent patterns. Just as is true of respondents to other surveys, inmates may sometimes have forgotten or confused details like dates and sequences of events. Heavy drug or alcohol use and limited educational or intellectual attainment may have distorted some answers in a long questionnaire. The survey findings represent the reports of a sample of State prison inmates only and should not be generalized to the entire offender population. Inmates in State prisons account for about 17% of the total adult correctional population. These inmates have usually committed the most serious offenses or have the most extensive criminal records. The State prison population increased 58% in 5 years but remained mostly male, minority, and young *In June 1991 State prisons held more than 711,000 inmates. In the 5 years from 1986 to 1991, the number of prisoners grew by over 58%. Prison population 1991 1986 ---- ---- Facilities 1,239 903 Inmates 711,643 450,416 Women were 5% of the inmates in 1991, up from 4% in 1986. Sex 1991 1986 ---- ---- Male 95% 96% Female 5 4 Sixty-five percent of prison inmates belonged to racial or ethnic minorities in 1991, up from 60% in 1986. Race or Hispanic origin 1991 1986 ---- ---- White* 35% 40% Black* 46 45 Other* 2 3 Hispanic 17 13 *Non-Hispanic inmates Sixty-eight percent of inmates were under age 35 in 1991, down from 73% in 1986. Age 1991 1986 ---- ---- 17 or younger 1% 1% 18-24 21 27 25-34 46 46 35-44 23 19 45-54 7 5 55-64 2 2 65 or older 1 1 Marital status of prison inmates remained the same from 1986 to 1991; about a fifth were married and over half had never married. Marital status 1991 1986 ---- ---- Married 18% 20% Widowed 2 2 Divorced 19 18 Separated 6 6 Never married 55 54 About 34% of inmates in 1991 and 29% in 1986 had completed high school. Among dropouts in the 1991 survey, 37% -- about a quarter of all prisoners -- had gotten a general equivalency degree (GED). Altogether, 59% of inmates had a high school diploma or its equivalent. Education 1991 1986 ---- ---- 8th grade or less 19% 21% Some high school 46 51 High school graduate 22 18 Some college or more 12 11 Two-thirds of inmates were employed during the month before they were arrested for their current offense; over half were employed full time. Work before arrest 1991 1986 ---- ---- Employed 67% 69% Full time 55 57 Part time 12 12 Not employed 33% 31% Looking for work 16 18 Not looking 16 13 Before their admission to prison, an estimated 38% of women and 13% of men were receiving support from Social Security, welfare, or charity. Income Annual income, for inmates free at least a year 1991 1986 ---- ---- No income 3% 2% Less than $3,000 19 25 $3,000-$4,999 10 12 $5,000-$9,999 21 22 $10,000-$14,999 17 16 $15,000-$24,999 16 13 $25,000 or more 15 11 The percentage of veterans among prison inmates declined from 20% in 1986 to 16% in 1991. Veteran status 1991 1986 ---- ---- Veterans 16% 20% Vietnamera 3 5 Other 14 15 Nonveterans 84% 80% Inmates sentenced for a drug offense accounted for 44% of the increase in the prison population from 1986 to 1991 Violent crimes accounted for the largest percentage of the inmates' most serious current offense in both 1991 and 1986 Figure 1 Among the inmates in 1991 -- *fewer than half were sentenced for a violent crime *a fourth were sentenced for a property crime *about a fifth were sentenced for a drug crime. Violent inmates *The percentage of prisoners serving time for violent crimes fell from 55% in 1986 to 47% in 1991, but the number increased from 245,600 to 328,000 in 1991. This was a 34%-increase in the number of violent inmates. Inmates convicted of homicide *12% of inmates in 1991 and 14% in 1986 were serving a sentence for homicide (murder or manslaughter). *The number of inmates convicted of homicide rose from 65,000 to 87,500, a 35%-increase. Inmates convicted of robbery *Of the individual offense categories, robbery had the largest percentage decrease, from 21% of all inmates in 1986 to 15% in 1991. Inmates serving time for a property offense Property offenders were 25% of all inmates in 1991, a decrease from 31% in 1986. *Most of this decline resulted from a decreased percentage of inmates sentenced for burglary. *Nevertheless, the estimate of inmates in State prison for burglary in 1991 (87,500) exceeded the estimated 74,400 of 5 years earlier. Sentenced drug offenders *The percentage of inmates in prison for a drug crime rose from 9% in 1986 to 21% in 1991. *Over 3 times as many inmates were serving a prison sentence for a drug charge in 1991 (150,300) as in 1986 (38,500). In 1991 women in prison were more likely than men to be serving a sentence for drug offenses Women Men Current --------------- ------------ offense 1991 1986 1991 1986 ------------------------------------------------- Violent 32% 41% 47% 55% Property 29 41 25 31 Drug 33 12 21 8 Public-order 6 5 7 5 Number of inmates 38,462 19,761 665,719 430,151 Figure 2 (Figure 3) *Women were about equally likely to be in prison for a violent, a property, or a drug offense. *12,600 women were serving a sentence for drug offenses in 1991, a 432%-increase from about 2,400 female inmates serving time for drugs in 1986. *137,700 male drug offenders in 1991 represented a 281%-increase from the 36,100 in prison in 1986. *In 1991 women in prison were more likely than men to be serving time for-- homicide (15% versus 12%) larceny (11% versus 5%) fraud (10% versus 2%) drugs (33% versus 21%). *Men were more likely than women to be in prison for -- robbery (15% versus 8%) assault (8% versus 6%) burglary (13% versus 5% In 1991 black and Hispanic inmates were more likely than white inmates to be serving a sentence for a drug offense *From 1986 to 1991, the number of black inmates serving a sentence for drugs increased 447%, the number of convicted Hispanic drug offenders went up 324%, and the number of whites in prison for drugs grew 115%. *In 1991, among inmates serving time for a drug offense-- -- 77% of whites, 75% of Hispanics, and 85% of blacks had been sentenced in the past to probation or incarceration -- 16% of whites, 15% of Hispanics, and 28% of blacks had served time for a prior violent offense. In 1986 and 1991 about half the white inmates were serving time for violent crimes *The percentage of white inmates serving a sentence for -- -- sexual assault rose, from 11% in 1986 to 15% in 1991 -- robbery declined, from 15% to 10% -- homicide remained 14% -- assault remained 7%. The percentages of black and Hispanic inmates in prison for violent offenses declined between 1986 and 1991 *The percentage of black inmates serving a sentence for -- --homicide declined, from 15% to 12% --robbery declined, from 26% to 19%. *The percentage of Hispanic inmates serving a sentence for -- *homicide declined, from 15% to 11% --robbery declined, from 19% to 13%. The current offense of white, black, and Hispanic inmates was more likely to be a drug offense in 1991 than in 1986 Percent of inmates --------------------------------------------------------------------- Most serious White Black Other race Hispanic offense ------------------------------------------------------- 1991 1986 1991 1986 1991 1986 1991 1986 Violent 49% 50% 47% 59% 54% 62% 39% 52% Property 30 36 22 29 28 29 21 26 Drug 12 8 25 7 10 6 33 16 Public-order 8 6 5 4 8 3 8 5 Number 248,705 177,181 321,217 202,872 16,627 11,381 117,632 56,505 Figure 4 See the Explanatory notes for definitions of racial and Hispanic-origin categories. Almost 1 in 3 inmates received collateral penalties; about 1 in 11 were sentenced to life in prison or to death Fines, restitution, court costs, and participation in drug programs formed part of some sentences *11% of all inmates were required to pay a fine. *10% were required to pay restitution to the victim. *12% were required to pay court costs. *6% were required to participate in drug treatment, and 5%, in drug testing. The type of collateral penalty was linked closely with the type of conviction offense: *About 1 in 8 inmates convicted of rape or sexual assault were ordered to enroll in a sex offender treatment program. *About 1 in 5 inmates convicted of a drug offense and 1 in 10 convicted of larceny were required to participate in drug treatment or testing. *26% of those convicted of driving while intoxicated and 18% convicted of drug trafficking received a fine. *29% of inmates convicted of fraud and 18% of those convicted of burglary or larceny were required to pay restitution to their victims. 9% of inmates were sentenced to life in prison or to death The percentage of inmates sentenced to life or to death was unchanged from 1986. In 1979, 11% of all inmates had a sentence to life in prison or to death. The 1986 and 1991 offense distributions of inmates sentenced to life or to death were almost the same: Offense 1991 1986 ----------------------------------- Total 100% 100% Homicide 67 69 Sexual assault 8 7 Robbery 8 8 Kidnaping 4 4 Assault 3 1 Drug trafficking 3 3 Other offenses 7 8 Figure 5 Black, white, and Hispanic inmates were about equally likely to be serving a sentence to life or to death Percent of inmates Maximum ----------------------------- sentence White Black Hispanic Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Term of years 90.4 91.0 92.1 Life 6.9 7.1 6.7 Life plus additional years 1.5 1.0 .4 Life without parole .7 .7 .4 Death .5 .3 .4 Figure 6 Inmates with a life sentence generally had an extensive criminal record *More than half had served time in a correctional facility for a prior offense; a fifth of all inmates with a life sentence had been incarcerated as a juvenile. *Two-thirds had a prior sentence to probation or incarceration; a third had three or more prior sentences. *30% had a past sentence for a violent offense. Of the estimated 60,000 inmates with a life sentence -- -- most were men (96%); -- half were age 35 or older; -- 46% were black, 37% white, 2% other races, and 14% Hispanic. Almost 75,000 inmates were serving a sentence for murder Of this estimated number -- 44% had received a sentence to a term of years, averaging 32 years 41% had received a life sentence 11% had receive a life sentence plus years 3% had been sentenced to death. (Figure 7) Half of all inmates had a maximum sentence of 9 years or less and expected to serve just over 3 years in prison The distribution of prison sentence lengths in 1991 was similar to that in 1986 1991 Maximum 1986 ----------------------------- sentence total Total White Black Hispanic --------------------------------------------------------- Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 1-24 months 10% 10% 8% 9% 14% 25-60 25 24 23 24 29 61-120 25 23 22 22 25 121 or more 30 34 37 36 24 Life/death 9 9 10 9 8 Figure 9 *A slightly larger percentage of inmates in 1991 than in 1986 had received a maximum sentence of more than 10 years. *Sentences for black inmates and white inmates differed little in the aggregate about a third of each group had a sentence of 5 years or less and nearly half had a sentence of more than 10 years. * In general, sentences received by Hispanic inmates were shorter than those of black or white inmates, reflecting primarily a larger percentage of drug offenders and a smaller percentage of violent offenders among Hispanic inmates. * Black and white inmates received similar sentences for similar types of offenses: Median sentence ---------------------- Offense White Black -------------------------------------- Violent 204 months 192 months Property 72 72 Drug 72 60 Public-order 60 54 Figure 10 90% of inmates knew the date or year when they expected to be released Inmates reported time in prison since their admission -- including jail credits and any previous prison time served on their current sentence -- and when they expected to leave prison. From this information two estimates of time served can be calculated: time served since admission and total time expected to be served. In other data series time served is reported for inmates leaving prison. Estimates of time served based on inmates leaving prison will differ because-- -- a higher proportion were sentenced for less serious offenses -- estimates exclude jail credits and prior time served on the current sentence -- some inmates are never released. *2% of the inmates did not expect to be released, and 8% could not estimate a release date. *Half of inmates had served 17 months or less at the time of their interview. Inmates convicted of a violent offense had served a median of 31 months; those convicted of a property offense, 12 months; of a drug offense, 11 months; and a public-order offense, 9 months. *Half of inmates expected to serve a total of 37 months or less before their release. Overall, the mean total time expected to be served was 5.5 years. About 4% of State prison inmates were not U.S. citizens About 31,300 inmates were aliens *About 1 in 23 inmates were not U.S. citizens. These aliens were from at least 49 countries in North America, South America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. (Figure 11) *Mexicans accounted for about half of the aliens-- Country Percent of alien in- of origin mates in State prisons -------------------------------------- Mexico 47% Cuba 10 Dominican Republic 9 Colombia 4 Jamaica 4 El Salvador 4 Guatemala 2 Trinidad and Tobago 2 United Kingdom 1 Vietnam 1 Others 16 Young, Hispanic men predominated *Nearly all aliens were male, more than four-fifths were of Hispanic origin, and about half were age 25 to 34. *About a third of aliens were married, nearly two-thirds had not completed high school, and nearly four-fifths had a job at the time of their current offense. *Approximately 1 in 10 aliens were non-Hispanic black inmates. About 1 in 25 were non-Hispanic white inmates, and about 1 in 25, Asian-Pacific Islanders. About three-fifths of alien inmates had ever used drugs *About two-fifths of alien inmates used drugs during the month prior to arrest for their current offense, and about a fifth were under the influence of drugs at the time of the offense. Percent of alien inmates using drugs -- In the month be- At the time fore the offense of the offense -------------------------------------- Any drug 38% 22% Cocaine/crack 25 12 Marijuana 19 6 Heroin/other opiates 10 6 Amphetamines/ methamphetamines 2 <1 Hallucinogens 2 1 Barbiturates 1 <1 Figure 12 *About 14,000 aliens were incarcerated for drug offenses, including 7,900 for trafficking and 6,100 for possession. *87% of an estimated 1,400 aliens from Colombia and 67% of an estimated 2,700 aliens from the Dominican Republic were incarcerated for a drug offense. Most alien inmates were serving time for drugs (45%) or violence (34%) *Approximately 10,800 aliens were incarcerated for violent crimes, including homicide, robbery, assault, and sexual assault. (Figure 13) Most inmates did not live with both parents while growing up, over 25% had parents who abused drugs or alcohol, and 31% had a brother with a jail or prison record (Figure 14) *Most of the time while growing up, 43% of the inmates lived in a single-parent household: 39% with their mother and 4% with their father. *53% of black inmates grew up in single-parent households, compared to 33% of white inmates and 40% of Hispanic inmates. *An estimated 14% of the inmates had lived in households with neither parent. *About 17% of the inmates had lived in a foster home, agency, or other institution at some time. More than a quarter of inmates reported that their parents or guardians had abused alcohol or drugs *26% of inmates reported that their parents or guardians had abused alcohol; 4%, that they had abused drugs. *Among all inmates, those who had lived with both parents were least likely to report parental/guardian substance abuse (23%). Thirty-seven percent of inmates who lived with their father reported substance abuse in the home, compared to 27% of those who lived with their mother and 34% of those who had other living arrangements. *36% of white inmates and 19% of black inmates reported parental alcohol abuse. * 6% of white inmates and 3% of black inmates reported their parents using drugs. More than 4 in 10 female inmates reported they had been physically or sexually abused *A third of female inmates reported being sexually abused and a third, physically abused, before they entered prison. *31% of women in prison had been abused before age 18, and 24% after age 18. *Female inmates (43%) were at least 3 times more likely than male inmates (12%) to have sustained physical or sexual abuse in their past. Inmates who had an immediate family member who was ever incarcerated -- Percent of inmates ------------------------------------- All White Black Hispanic ----------------------------------- At least one family member 37% 33% 42% 35% Father 6 8 5 5 Mother 2 2 2 1 Brother 31 26 35 29 Sister 4 4 5 4 Other 1 1 <1 1 Figure 15 37% of inmates had an immediate family member who had served time *At least 7% of prisoners said a parent had served a jail or prison sentence. *31% said their brother had been incarcerated. *4% said their sister had been incarcerated. *Black inmates (42%) were more likely than white (33%) or Hispanic (35%) inmates to report an immediate family member ever being in jail or prison. Male and female inmates were parents to more than 826,000 children under age 18 (Figure 16) (Figure 17) Female inmates were more likely than male inmates to have minor children *42% of the women and 32% of the men had 2 or more children under age 18. *Male inmates had more than 770,000 children under age 18. Female inmates had over 56,000 minor children. Before entering prison, women were more likely than men to have lived with their children *Approximately 7 in 10 female inmates with children under age 18 lived with them prior to being incarcerated, compared to about 5 in 10 male inmates. Most inmates' children were living with their other parent or grand parents *About 90% of the male inmates with children reported that the children currently lived with the children's mother, and 10% said that the children lived with their grandparents. Three percent of male inmates with minor children reported them to be living with other relatives or friends. * A fourth of female inmates reported having minor children who were living with their father, while more than half said that the children were being cared for by their grandparents. About 24% said that their children now lived with other relatives or friends. *10% of the women and 2% of the men said that their children were in a foster home, children's agency, or institution. *8% of male inmates and 11% of female inmates had only children over age 18 at the time of the survey. 6% of women entered prison pregnant *An estimated 2,341 of the nearly 39,000 female inmates were pregnant when they entered prison. Eighty-six percent of these women received a gynecological exam related to their pregnancy. The majority of these women (70%) also reported having some form of prenatal care. *92% of the women inmates had their last gynecological exam in 1990 or 1991. * Excluding alcohol and drug treatment, nearly a fourth of the women in prison had received individual or group counseling since their admission. About 5,200 women were receiving counseling at the time of the survey. * 14% of the female inmates participated in classes dealing with parenting and childrearing. *About 13% of the women were involved with life skills programs and 33% with religious activities. 94% of inmates had been convicted of a violent crime or had a previous sentence to probation or incarceration (Figure 18) Most nonviolent first-time offenders were serving a sentence for a drug offense Six percent of prisoners were nonviolent offenders with no prior sentence to probation or incarceration. Of these, 42% were in prison for drug trafficking, 19% for drug possession, and 12% for burglary. The percentage of nonviolent recidivists -- inmates whose current and past sentences were for property, drug, or public-order offenses only -- rose from 28% of all inmates in 1986 to 32% in 1991. Drug offenders in prison accounted for much of this increase: 18% of nonviolent recidivists were drug offenders in 1986, compared to 38% in 1991. Over 60% of inmates in 1991 had been incarcerated in the past Among prison inmates previously incarcerated, most (91%) had been in jail or prison for an offense within the 5 years before their current offense. About 3% of the previously incarcerated inmates had remained out of jail or prison for at least 10 years before being arrested for their current offense. About 5% had been incarcerated only as a juvenile in the past. About 38% of all inmates had not been incarcerated before: -- 19% were sentenced for the first time. -- 19% had received only sentences to probation. Inmate surveys provide a unique source of criminal history information Prisoners reported in detail past sentences to probation or incarceration that they had served as juveniles or adults. The survey's wealth of new information on current and prior sentences, when combined with its other data, provides a striking portrait of who is in prison. This depiction, with its essential element of criminal history, gives an empirical base to examine issues like appropriate punishment and assessment of risk to society. This survey alone permits detailed research with nationally representative data. Official records are often incomplete, are not easily compared across jurisdictions, and lack crucial personal data. Few inmates had been sentenced for only minor offenses in the past One percent of all inmates had been sentenced to probation or incarceration in the past for only minor offenses, including drunkenness, vagrancy, loitering, disorderly conduct, or minor traffic offenses. In total, 19% of inmates had current and past nonviolent offenses and had-- -- a record of only minor offenses or -- no prior sentences to incarceration, or -- no incarceration for at least 10 years before the current offense. Characteristic of Percent of prior sentences all inmates ----------------- ----------- Total 100% First sentence 19% Prior sentence 81% To probation/incarceration 81 Minor offenses only 1 As a juvenile only 8 To probation only 19 As a juvenile only 5 To incarceration 61 As a juvenile only 3 Number of inmates 697,853 Among inmates, 28% of women and 19% of men, 23% of Hispanics, 20% of whites, and 17% of blacks were serving their first sentence (Figure 19) 4 in 5 inmates sentenced for the first time were in prison for drug trafficking or a violent offense *Violent offenders made up 65% of inmates with no prior record and 42% of prisoners with a prior sentence to probation, prison, or jail. *Almost a quarter of inmates without a prior record were serving time for homicide. Over a fifth were in prison for a drug offense. More than half the inmates who had served time in the past for a violent offense were serving a current sentence for violence *1 in 5 violent recidivists were in prison for robbery. *28% of recidivists and 10% of prisoners with no prior offense were in prison for a property offense. *57% of recidivists who had not served time for a violent offense were currently in prison for a property or a drug crime. One in four recidivists with no prior violent offense were serving a sentence for a drug offense, and 1 in 6 for burglary. Percent of inmates ------------------ Prior sentence 1991 1986 ------------------------------------------------- Probation None 33% 34% Juvenile only 15 18 Adult only 34 28 Both 18 20 Incarceration None 40% 37% Juvenile only 4 7 Adult only 40 38 Both 16 19 Probation or incarceration None 20% 18% Juvenile only 8 11 Adult only 41 36 Both 31 36 Figure 21 80% of inmates had earlier been sentenced to probation or incarceration *About two-thirds of inmates had been on probation and three-fifths had been incarcerated previously. *About 4 in 10 prison inmates had been convicted before as a juvenile and 7 in 10 as an adult. *Similar percentages of inmates in 1991 and 1986 had served past sentences to probation or incarceration. (Figure 22) 88% of the inmates on probation or parole before entering prison were arrested for a new offense Among the 44% of inmates who were on parole or probation before admission to prison-- (Figure 23) Why the previous probation or parole was formally revoked The inmate was arrested for or convicted of a new offense 74% and/or the inmate had failed to-- pass a drug test 5% report for drug testing or treatment 3 report for alcohol treatment 1 report to counseling 1 report to probation or parole officer 18 obtain permission to leave jurisdiction 6 secure or keep employment 1 pay fines, restitution, or other obligations 4 break contacts with known offenders 1 meet other requirements of the supervised release to the community 10 Of all inmates entering prison -- --53% had no existing criminal justice status when they were arrested for their current offense. --39% were under supervision in the community while on probation or parole, which was formally revoked. --5% were on probation or parole and were sentenced for a new offense but reported no formal revocation. --3% returned from escape or were in another status. Parole revocations Among inmates who entered prison after parole was formally revoked-- 32% had been in prison for a violent offense. 32% had their supervision revoked after an arrest or conviction for a new violent offense. Half had served 18 months or less in prison before their release and had been on parole 8 months or less. Probation revocations Among those entering prison after official revocation of probation -- 18% had been on probation for a violent offense. 30% were currently serving time in prison for a violent offense. Half had been on probation 5 months or less before their admission to prison. On average, inmates who received a new sentence after revocation of parole or probation had a shorter sentence than other inmates Median sentence -------------------------------------------------- On probation or parole before return to prison ------------------------------- Revocation of No ---------------------------------- criminal Parole Most justice sta- Probation Parole without serious tus at time with new with new new offense of offense sentence sentence sentence ---------------------------------------------------------------- All 120 months 72 months 108 months 60 months Violent 216 125 216 120 Property 72 60 84 60 Drugs 72 60 60 36 Public-order 60 54 48 30 The median sentence of those returned to prison after formal revocation of parole and without a new sentence was 60 months, half the 120-month median sentence of persons having no criminal justice status at the time of their offense. Violent inmates were most likely to have victimized one person who was male, adult, and of the same race as the inmate 23% of violent inmates had victimized more than one person Percent of violent inmates ----------------------------------- Violent 3 or more offenses 1 victim 2 victims victims ----------------------------------------------------------------------- All 77% 13% 10% Homicide 85 10 5 Sexual assault 81 12 7 Robbery 65 18 17 Assault 79 13 8 Figure 24 *More than a third of all robbers reported victimizing two or more persons in the crime that led to their current sentence. *Overall, the 328,000 violent inmates had more than 610,000 victims. An estimated 299,000 victims of violence were robbed (49%); 112,000 were killed in a homicide (18%); 94,500, assaulted (15%); and 90,000, raped or sexually assaulted (14%). Among violent inmates, 62% of the men and 70% of the women had victimized men Percent of violent inmates Sex ---------------- of victim(s) Male Female --------------------------------------------- Male 50% 61% Female 39 31 Mixed 12 9 Figure 25 *Among violent male inmates who victimized a female, 46% raped or sexually assaulted her, 22% robbed her, and 17% killed her. *Among women in prison who victimized a male, 58% killed their victim, 18% robbed him, and 18% assaulted him. 1 in 5 violent inmates had victimized a minor Percent of violent inmates whose current age was ------------------------------------ Age Under Age 45 of victim(s) age 25 25-34 35-44 or older ------------------------------------------------------- Minor 12% 14% 20% 33% Adult 85 83 77 65 Mixed 3 2 3 2 Figure 26 *Inmates age 45 or older and serving time for a violent crime were more than twice as likely as violent inmates under age 25 to have victimized a minor. *Among inmates who had committed a violent offense against a minor, 79% had raped or sexually assaulted their victim. 89% of white and 53% of black violent inmates had victimized someone of their own race Race/His- Percent of violent inmates panic origin --------------------------------------- of victim(s) White Black Other Hispanic ----------------------------------------------------------- White 89% 33% 50% 33% Black 3 53 11 10 Other 2 2 20 3 Hispanic 4 6 9 49 Mixed 2 5 10 5 Figure 27 *Black (47%) and Hispanic (51%) violent inmates were at least 4 times more likely than white (11%) violent inmates to have victimized someone of a different race or ethnic group. *Among violent inmates who had victimized someone of a different race or ethnic group, 47% had committed robbery and 20%, homicide. (Figure 28) 32% of inmates sentenced for a violent offense had victimized a relative, intimate, or person whom they knew well (Figure 29) Among violent inmates, women (36%) were more likely than men (16%) to have victimized a relative or intimate Percent of Relationship violent inmates of inmates ------------------- to their victims Male Female -------------------------------------------------------- Close 16% 36% Intimate 7 20 Relative 10 16 Known 33% 29% Well known 15 14 Acquaintance 12 11 By sight only 7 4 Stranger 51% 35% Figure 30 *Among inmates sentenced for a violent offense, women (48%) were nearly twice as likely as men (26%) to have committed a homicide. Nearly half of these women had murdered a relative or intimate. *21% of violent male prisoners had committed a rape or other sexual assault; 38% of the sex offenders had assaulted a relative or intimate. *More than 80% of both men and women in prison for robbery had victimized a stranger or a person known by sight only. *Among inmates in prison for assault, 44% of the men, compared to 30% of the women, had victimized a stranger. White inmates were about twice as likely as black and Hispanic inmates to have victimized a relative or intimate Relationship Percent of violent inmates of inmates to -------------------------------- their victims White Black Other Hispanic ------------------------------------------------------ Close 26% 11% 24% 12% Known 35 33 28 29 Stranger 39 56 48 59 Figure 31 Nearly a quarter of white inmates in prison for homicide had killed a relative or intimate Among inmates, by race or ethnicity and offense, percent who victimized a relative or intimate Race or ethnicity of inmate --------------------------------- Offense White Black Other Hispanic --------------------------------------------------- Homicide 23% 12% 26% 13% Sexual assault 46 26 44 31 Robbery 1 1 3 1 Assault 22 17 20 12 Figure 32 *Among those who had committed rape or other sexual assault, black (26%) inmates were less likely than white (46%) inmates to have victimized a relative or intimate. 35% of violent inmates who committed their offense at age 45 or older had victimized a relative or intimate Among inmates, by inmate's age and offense, percent who victimized a relative or intimate Age of inmate at time of offense ---------------------------------- 24 or 45 Offense younger 25-34 35-44 or older -------------------------------------------------------- All offenses 9% 18% 32% 35% Homicide 10 19 33 31 Sexual assault 28 35 54 46 Robbery 1 2 2 4 Assault 8 25 25 32 Figure 33 *Overall, inmates age 45 or older at the time of their offense were about 4 times as likely as those under age 25 to have victimized a relative or intimate. *In contrast, the younger the inmate at the time of the offense, the greater the likelihood of victimizing a stranger. More than 60% of violent inmates under age 25 when they committed their offense victimized a stranger, compared to fewer than 50% of those age 25 to 34, 35% of those age 35 to 44, and 23% age 45 or older. Two-thirds of violent inmates had killed, raped, or injured their victims Percent of violent inmates ------------------------------------------ Type of injury All Sexual to the victim offenses assault Robbery Assault ---------------------------------------------------------------- Any injury 66.8% 100.0% 16.8% 71.6% Death 27.7 .2 .5 .9 Rape/sexual assault 21.1 100.0 .4 1.1 Knife or bullet wound 8.2 1.0 5.0 35.4 Broken bones and other internal injuries 3.4 1.1 2.8 11.9 Knocked unconscious 2.2 .6 2.4 7.3 Minor bruises and cuts 8.6 8.3 8.0 21.8 Other 2.4 4.0 2.0 4.9 Except for offenses in which victims died, more than one type of injury could be reported. Figure 34 *28% of the violent inmates said they had killed their victims; 21% had raped or sexually assaulted them; 11% had inflicted major injuries, such as knife or bullet wounds, broken bones, and other internal injuries, or had knocked them out; and 5% had caused only minor injuries, such as bruises, cuts, scratches or a black eye. *Among inmates convicted of rape, 80% reported no specific injuries in addition to raping or sexually assaulting their victims. Fewer than 5% reported they had wounded or inflicted any other major injury on their rape victims. *More than half of all inmates in prison for assault had sexually assaulted or inflicted a major injury on their victims. *Of all types of violent inmates, robbers were the least likely to have injured their victims. About 1 in 6 robbers had injured their victims, and 1 in 10 had inflicted a major injury. The type of injury varied by sex, race, and age of inmate *Overall, female violent inmates (76%) were some-what more likely than male inmates (66%) to have injured their victims. Among violent -- Female inmates Male inmates -------------- ------------ 50% had killed their victims 28% 5% had sexually assaulted them 22% 13% had inflicted a major injury 11% *Among violent inmates, a higher percentage of whites (76%) than blacks (60%) or Hispanics (63%) injured their victims. These differences largely reflect the higher percentage of white inmates (33%) who raped or sexually assaulted their victims compared to black (14%) or Hispanic inmates (16%). *Inmates age 45 or older when they committed the offense were about 3 times as likely as those under age 25 to have sexually assaulted their victims. Where the offense took place differed by type of crime-- *48% of the robbers in prison committed the robbery in a commercial establishment; 32%, in a public place, such as a park, street, parking lot, or school. *44% of the inmates convicted of rape or sexual assault committed the crime in the victim's home; 32%, in the inmate's home. *34% of the inmates convicted of homicide killed their victims in the victim's home; 29%, in a public place. *35% of the inmates convicted of assault attacked their victims in a public place; 24%, in the victim's home. (Figure 35) 46% of violent inmates carried or used a weapon when they committed the offense Inmates armed with a gun differed little from those with a knife in how they used their weapon (Figure 36) An estimated 2,100 inmates, representing fewer than 1% of all violent inmates, were armed with a military-type weapon, such as an Uzi, AK-47, AR-15, or M-16. Weapon use was strongly related to the inmate's age when the offense occurred. Weapons were carried or used by _ _ 52% of inmates age 24 or younger _ 44% of those age 25 to 34 _ 39%, age 35 to 44 _ 33%, age 45 or older. Weapon use did not vary significantly between the sexes or among racial and ethnic groups. Among violent inmates, the same percentage (46%) of men and women carried a weapon. White inmates (43%) were about as likely as black inmates (47%) and Hispanic inmates (48%) to have been armed. About two-thirds of all armed violent inmates carried guns. Of these, 56% actually fired their gun when they committed the offense. More than half of the inmates who committed murder, robbery, or assault carried a weapon Percent of violent inmates ------------------------------- Current Any Other offense weapon Gun Knife weapon ---------------------------------------------------- Murder 64% 45% 14% 5% Negligent manslaughter 47 32 12 3 Rape 17 5 10 2 Other sexual assault 6 2 3 1 Robbery 51 36 10 5 Assault 57 33 16 8 Figure 37 Inmates armed with a gun differed little from those with a knife in how they used their weapon Percent of violent armed inmates How weapon -------------------------------- was used Gun Knife Other weapon ------------------------------------------------------------ To kill the victim 14% 15% 11% To injure the victim 11 18 23 To scare the victim 54 51 43 For protection 30 29 27 To get away 12 14 15 Other reasons 6 5 6 Not used 8 9 11 Figure 38 Most inmates who carried a weapon while committing the crime used it *More than 90% of the violent inmates who carried a weapon actually used it to commit the offense. *Among inmates who had a weapon at the time of the offense -- 52% used it to scare the victim 14%, to injure the victim 14%, to kill the victim. * 29% of the violent inmates who carried a weapon used it for self-protection; 13% used it to get away after committing the crime. 61% of violent inmates said that they or their victims were drinking or using drugs at the time of the crime Percent of inmates reporting that they or their victims were under the influence of alcohol or drugs at time of the offense ------------------------------- Violent Inmate offense Inmate Victim or victim ------------------------------------------------- All 50% 30% 61% Homicide 52 46 70 Sexual assault 42 19 47 Robbery 52 19 61 Assault 50 42 68 Figure 39 *30% of the violent inmates said their victims were under the influence of alcohol or drugs. *Homicide and assault were the crimes for which the largest percentage of inmates reported drug or alcohol use by the victim or themselves at the time of the offense. 1 in 6 inmates committed their offense armed with a gun, and half of them fired it Percent of inmates ------------------------------------------------------ Owned or Armed when Fired possessed committing during Ever owned in month current current Type of firearm or possessed before arrest offense offense ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Any firearm 43% 4% 16% 8% Handgun 34 18 13 6 Rifle or shotgun 29 12 3 2 Military-type 8 3 <1 <1 Other 7 <1 <1 0 Figure 40 Handguns were the most commonly owned and used firearm *More than 40% of all inmates reported they had owned or possessed a firearm at some time in their lives. While 34% of the inmates owned a handgun, 29% owned a rifle or shotgun, and 8% a military-type weapon. Sixteen percent of all inmates admitted to using or having a gun while committing their current offense -- 13% a handgun, 3% a rifle or shotgun, and 1% a military-type weapon. 36% of inmates convicted of homicide, robbery, or assault were armed with a gun -- 42% of the inmates who committed a homicide were armed with a gun, while 36% fired the gun. -- 34% of the robbers were armed, while 6% fired the gun. -- 31% of the inmates who committed an assault were armed, while 25% fired the gun. Inmates who had committed sexual assault, property, drug, or public-order offenses (excluding weapons violations) were the least likely to be armed (less than 5%) or to fire a gun (1% or less). More than a fifth of the inmates reported ever having or using a gun while committing a crime When asked about using guns in the past, 23% of the inmates said they had committed at least one crime with a firearm -- 19% had used a handgun, 5% a shotgun or rifle, and 1% a military-type weapon. Half of the inmates who had ever possessed a firearm, had used a firearm to commit a crime. Male inmates (23%) were more likely than female inmates (12%) to have used or possessed a gun in a crime. Relatively fewer Hispanic inmates (18%) than white (22%) or black (25%) inmates said they had a gun while committing a crime. 10% of inmates had stolen at least one gun, and 11% had sold or traded stolen guns (Figure 41) 6% of inmates belonged to a gang before entering prison Criminal gangs, as this report defines them, are groups that commit illegal acts and have 5 or 6 of these characteristics *Formal membership with a required initiation or rules for members *A recognized leader or certain members whom others follow * Common clothing (such as jackets, caps, scarves or bandannas), or group colors, symbols, tattoos, or special language *A group name * Members from the same neighborhood, street, or school *Turf or territory where the group is known and where group activities usually take place About 6% of inmates belonged to groups that engaged in illegal activities and that had five or six gang characteristics. (See the above box.) Another 6% engaged in illegal activities with groups that had three or four gang characteristics. Seventy percent of inmates did not participate in illegal activities while with groups of friends having one or more gang characteristics. Number of gang Number Percent of characteristics in group all inmates ----------------------------------------------------- 5-6 44,400 6% 3-4 39,200 6 2 39,600 6 1 87,000 12 0 165,000 23 Not in a group that committed illegal acts 330,400 47% Figure 42 Comparing gang members to inmates whose group of friends had no gang characteristics other than committing offenses together Of gang members-- ----------------- 92% reported that their gang fought other groups 69% indicated they manufactured, imported, or sold drugs as a group 63% reported stealing motor vehicles or their parts with other gang members 58% had broken into homes or other buildings as a gang activity Of non-gang inmates -- ---------------------- 26% said their group of friends fought others 37% said their group of friends committed drug offenses together 24% said they and their friends helped one another to steal motor vehicles or parts 29% said they had broken into buildings while with a group of friends Half of the gang members in prison reported their gangs' having 60 or more members Number of members Number of gang ------------------ characteristics Median Mean ----------------- ------ ----- 5-6 60 143 3-4 20 82 2 10 24 1 6 12 Figure 43 Among inmates who were gang members -- *On average, they had joined a gang at age 14. *Half belonged for 36 months or more and belonged at the time they were arrested for their current offense. *32% were still members. *19% reported other members' being involved in their current offense. *91% had served at least one previous sentence either in an institution or on probation, and 73% had served or were serving time for a violent offense. 49% or more of the gang members committed robberies, stole cars and auto parts, shoplifted, and sold drugs while in a group Percent of inmates who while in a group ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Des- Number troyed of gang or Stole Sold charac- damaged Fought Shop- motor stolen Broke teris- Used prop- other lift- vehicles prop- in and Sold tics drugs erty groups ed or parts erty entered drugs Robbed Other ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ------ 5-6 81% 58% 92% 50% 63% 68% 58% 69% 49% 12% 3-4 76 46 80 44 49 53 47 58 38 8 1-2 79 36 50 40 37 47 41 48 23 5 0 82 22 26 32 24 32 29 37 13 3 Figure 44 Compared to 1986, inmates reported increased use of cocaine or crack and decreased use of marijuana Half of all inmates in 1991 had used cocaine in some form Thirty-two percent had used cocaine or crack on a regular basis, compared to 22% in 1986. Percent of inmates who reported-- Ever used Used regularly --------- -------------- 1991 1986 1991 1986 ---- ---- ---- ---- Any drug 79% 80% 62% 3% Marijuana 74 76 52 55 Cocaine/crack 50 44 32 22 Heroin/opiates 25 26 15 18 Figure 45 About a quarter of the inmates in 1991 said they had used cocaine or crack in the month before the offense, compared to a fifth of inmates in 1986. About 14% committed their offense under the influence of cocaine or crack in 1991, up from 10%. The percentage of inmates using marijuana in the month before the offense decreased from 46% in 1986 to 32% in 1991. Eleven percent of inmates were under the influence of marijuana at the time of the offense in 1991, compared to 18% in 1986. About 80% of inmates in both 1986 and 1991 reported ever using a drug, and 62% reported regular use of a drug at some time in their lives. Inmates in 1991 were less likely than those in 1986 to have used drugs in the month before or at the time of the offense Percent of inmates using drugs ------------------------------------- In the month be- At the time fore the offense of the offense ---------------- -------------- Type of drug 1991 1986 1991 1986 -------------------------------------------------------- Any drug 50% 56% 31% 36% Marijuana 32 46 11 18 Cocaine/crack 25 20 14 10 Heroin/opiates* 10 11 6 7 Barbiturates* 4 9 1 4 Stimulants* 8 10 3 4 Hallucinogens* 4 7 2 3 Figure 46 (Figure 47) About the same proportion of inmates in 1986 and 1991 reported using heroin or other opiates. In the month before the offense for which they were sentenced, about 1 in 10 had used heroin or other opiates, and about 1 in 16 had committed the offense under the influence of these drugs. Marijuana was still the most commonly used drug Inmates in 1991 were more likely to have used marijuana than any other drug. More than half reported using marijuana on a regular basis, and a third had used marijuana in the month before the offense. One in five inmates reported using marijuana daily in the month before their offense. About 14% of inmates committed their offense under the influence of cocaine or crack Sixteen percent of inmates were daily users of cocaine or crack in the month before their offense -- *12% were using cocaine and 7% were using crack. Inmates were twice as likely to report using cocaine as to report using crack -- *For the month before the offense, 20% reported cocaine use and 10% reported crack use. *At the time of the offense, 10% were under the influence of cocaine and 5% were under the influence of crack. 31% of inmates committed their offense under the influence of drugs, and 17% committed their offense to get money for drugs Drug use was common among inmates serving time for burglary, robbery, or drug offenses Among inmates serving a sentence for burglary or robbery, about 6 in 10 inmates had used drugs in the month before the arrest for the current offense, and about 4 in 10 were under the influence at the time of the offense. Overall, violent and public-order offenders were less likely than property offenders to have used drugs in the month before their offense and to have committed their current offense under the influence of drugs. For violent offenders using drugs in the month before their offense, only inmates convicted of robbery had about the same percentage of drug use as property offenders. Among inmates in prison for violent offenses other than robbery, those sentenced for sexual assault (20%), assault (23%), or homicide (28%) were less likely than property offenders (35%) to have committed their offense under the influence. Money for drugs motivated more than a quarter of the inmates sentenced for robbery, burglary, or larceny Drug users were more likely to have committed crimes that could get them money Percent of inmates who Committed offense Used drugs -------------------- in the month Under the To get Current before the influence money offense offense of drugs for drugs ------------------------------------------------------ All inmates 50% 31% 17% Violent offenses 46% 28% 12% Homicide 43 28 5 Sexual assault 31 20 2 Robbery 59 38 27 Assault 42 23 6 Property offenses 54% 35% 26% Burglary 59 40 30 Larceny 54 38 31 Drug offenses 60% 37% 22% Possession 61 38 16 Trafficking 59 36 25 Public-order offenses 35% 18% 5% Figure 48 Twenty-seven percent of inmates in prison for robbery and 30% of those serving time for burglary reported committing their offense to get money for drugs. About 25% of inmates in prison for drug trafficking reported money for drugs as a motive. Inmates' drug use varied according to prisoner characteristics Percent of inmates who ----------------------------------- Used drugs Committed offense-- in the month Under the To get Charac- before the influence money teristic offense of drugs for drugs ----------------------------------------------------- All inmates 50% 31% 17% Sex Male 50% 31% 16% Female 54% 36% 24% Race/Hispanic origin White 49% 32% 15% Black 49 29 17 Hispanic 54 34 20 Age 17 or younger 51% 22% 9% 18-24 52 31 16 25-29 55 34 18 30-34 56 37 21 35-44 48 30 17 45-54 28 15 10 55 or older 9 6 3 Figure 49 Compared to men in prison, women had used drugs and had committed crimes to buy drugs relatively more often Female inmates were more likely than male inmates to have used drugs in the month before the offense (54% versus 50%) and to have been under the influence at the time of the offense (36% versus 31%). Nearly 1 in 4 women in prison reported committing their crimes to obtain money for drugs compared to about 1 in 6 men. By most measures, Hispanic inmates had higher rates of drug use than non-Hispanic inmates Hispanic inmates were more likely than other inmates to have used drugs in the month prior to the offense (54% compared to 49%). While Hispanic (34%) and white (32%) inmates were almost equally likely to have been under the influence at the time of the offense, black inmates were less likely (29%). Twenty percent of Hispanic inmates reported getting money for drugs as a reason for committing their crimes, compared to 15% of white inmates and 17% of black inmates. Female inmates were more likely than male inmates--and black inmates more likely than white inmates--to have used crack (Figures 50 and 51) A third of all inmates had participated in a drug treatment program after entering prison Among inmates ever treated for drug dependency, most who had used drugs within a month before the offense had been treated since admission Almost half of the inmates who had used a drug during the month before their current offense had participated in drug treatment after receiving their current sentence. This treatment ranged from intensive in-patient programs, through individual or group counseling with a professional, to self-help groups or drug awareness training. One in five inmates who had used drugs in the month before their offense were in a treatment program at the time of the interview. Among inmates who had used drugs during the month before their offense, 31% had been in a treatment program before entering prison, 25% had been in such a program once or twice, and 6%, three or more times. A 10th of these inmates were in a treatment program during the month they committed their offense. 36% of all inmates received their most recent treatment for drugs in jail or prison Over 5 in 10 inmates who had ever used drugs had received treatment for drug addiction; for over 4 in 10 of these inmates, the most recent treatment was while they were incarcerated. Professionals had provided individual drug counseling to 5% of inmates who used drugs in the month before their offense and had led drug treatment groups for 27% Group counseling, conducted by professionals or by peers in a self-help program, was the most frequent type of drug treatment program in prison. After admission, 22% of all inmates had participated in group counseling and 8% had been in self-help counseling groups. Of the inmates who used drugs in the month before their offense, after entering prison 32% had been in group counseling and 12%, in self-help groups. (For program categories see entry for figure 53 in Explanatory Notes at the end of this document.) In-patient drug treatment programs had treated 7% of all inmates and 11% of the recent drug users. Percent of inmates who ----------------------------- Used drugs ----------------------- Drug treat- Ever in In the month ment program All the past before offense --------------------------------------------------- Participated Ever 43% 55% 62% After admission 33% 41% 48% Before admission 21% 26% 31% Times 1 12 16 18 2 5 6 7 3-5 3 4 5 6 or more 1 1 1 Participated in the month before the current admission 7% 8% 10% Most recent participation was while incarcerated 36% 45% 51% Participating at the time of the survey 13% 17% 20% Categories of participation before and after admission include inmates who participated during both periods. Figure 52 (Figure 53) 2.2% of inmates who reported the results of the test for the virus that causes AIDS said they were HIV-positive 51.2% of all inmates had ever been tested for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and reported the results Percent of inmates tested for HIV and reporting the results --------------------- HIV- Inmates Total positive -------------------------------- All 51.2% 2.2% Male 50.3 2.1 Female 66.8 3.3 White 52.6% 1.1% Black 52.1 2.6 Other 50.5 .9 Hispanic 46.0 3.7 Male White 51.7% 1.0% Black 51.2 2.5 Hispanic 45.2 3.5 Female White 68.2% 1.9% Black 67.3 3.5 Hispanic 62.7 6.8 Figure 54 Among all inmates -- 51.2% reported HIV-test results 32.2 had never been tested 9.0 did not know if they had been tested 7.5 had been tested but did not know the results .1 refused to report whether they had been tested or refused to report the test results. Of those inmates who were ever tested for the presence of HIV and who reported the results-- * Women (3.3%) were more likely than men (2.1%) to test HIV-positive. * 3.7% of Hispanic inmates and 2.6% of black inmates tested HIV-positive, compared to 1.1% of white inmates. * Hispanic men (3.5%) were more likely than white men (1.0%) to test HIV-positive. HIV-positive tests accounted for 2.5% of the black men who had ever tested and who reported the outcome. * Hispanic women (6.8%) had higher HIV-positive rates than white women (1.9%). Black women had a positive rate of 3.5%. Of all prison inmates, 55.9% said they had been tested after the most recent admission. Drug users and needle users had higher positive rates than other inmates * For inmates reporting test results, 2.5% of drug users, compared to 0.8% of other inmates, reported that they tested HIV-positive. * The percentage of HIV-positive was higher among inmates who -- used drugs in the month before their offense (2.8%) used needles to inject drugs intravenously (4.9%), shared needles with other drug users (7.1%). A quarter of inmates had used a needle to inject drugs Percent of inmates who -------------------------- Used drugs Ever in the month used before the All drugs offense ------------------------------------------------------ Ever injected a drug for nonmedical purposes 25% 31% 40% Type of drug Heroin/other opiate 17 22 28 Cocaine 16 21 28 Crank (methamphetamine) 6 8 11 Other 4 5 7 Ever shared a needle 12% 15% 20% Figure 55 * 40% of inmates who used drugs in the month before their offense had in the past used a needle to inject drugs. * 1 in 6 inmates used a needle to inject heroin or other opiates, and 1 in 6, to inject cocaine. * More than 10% of all inmates and 20% of users in the month before their offense had shared a needle. 32% of inmates committed their offense under the influence of alcohol Inmates sentenced for violent or property offenses were the most likely to have been under the influence of both drugs and alcohol at the time of the offense Percent of inmates under the influence of-- ------------------------------------------- Current offense Alcohol only Drugs only Both ---------------------------------------------------------------- All offenses 18% 17% 14% Violent offenses 21% 12% 16% Homicide 25 10 17 Sexual assault 22 5 14 Robbery 15 19 18 Assault 27 8 14 Property offenses 18% 21% 14% Drug offenses 8% 26% 10% Public-order offenses 31% 10% 9% DWI 70 3 8 Other public-order 20 11 10 Figure 56 * Slightly more than two-fifths of inmates convicted of homicide or assault committed their current offense under the influence of alcohol or of alcohol with drugs. * About a third of inmates convicted of robbery or a property offense were under the influence of alcohol at the time of their current offense. Inmates serving a sentence for a drug offense (18%) were the least likely to be using alcohol at the time of their offense. Relatively fewer inmates in 1991 than in 1986 committed their current offense under the influence of alcohol or drugs Under the influence Percent of inmates at the time of ------------------ the offense 1991 1986 ----------------------------------------- Total 49% 54% Alcohol only 18 18 Drugs only 17 17 Both alcohol and drugs 14 18 Figure 57 * 49% of inmates were under the influence in 1991; 54% in 1986. Most of this decline resulted from a decreased percentage using both alcohol and drugs. Drinking inmates had consumed an average of nearly 9 ounces of ethanol before their offense * The pattern of drinking--the amount drunk and the amount of time spent drinking--did not differ widely among the major offender groups. Average amount of ethanol drunk before current offense ---------------------------- Total 8.7 ozs. Violent 9.1 Property 9.4 Drugs 6.4 Public-order 7.8 * 9 ounces of ethanol is equivalent to about three six-packs of beer or 2 quarts of wine. * About half the inmates under the influence at the time of the offense had been drinking 6 hours or more. * Daily drinking for all inmates during the year before the current offense was more likely among-- --male (29%) than female (19%) --white (34%) than black (25%) or Hispanic (25%) --divorced (31%) or never married (29%) than married (25%) inmates. About half of daily drinkers had ever participated in an alcohol-abuse program * 38% of all drinkers had participated in an alcohol-abuse program in their lifetimes, including-- 48% of the daily drinkers 35% of those who drank at least once a week 25% of those who drank less than once a week. * 35% of the daily drinkers had participated in more than one alcohol program, compared to 28% of the weekly drinkers and 24% of those who drank less frequently than every week. * Since their admission to prison, about 18% of all drinkers had joined alcohol-related groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous or Al-Anon. (Figure 58) Nearly all inmates had participated in work, education, or other programs since their admission to prison Participation in prison activities and programs involved three-fourths or more of all inmates, regardless of sex, race, Hispanic origin, or offense Percent of inmates who-- --------------------------------------------- Had participated Were currently in a program or participating in a activity after admission program or activity ------------------------------------------------------------- All inmates Men 91% 80% Women 93 84 White 91% 81% Black 91 80 Other race 94 81 Hispanic 89 76 Violent 93% 82% Property 90 78 Drugs 90 79 Public-order 85 77 Figure 59 Nearly half of all inmates had received academic education, and about a third, vocational training since entering prison Type and level of training Men Women ----------------------------------------- Academic Basic <9th grade 5% 5% High school 26 24 College 12 12 Other 2 3 Vocational 31% 31% Figure 60 Bible clubs and other religious activities attracted the most inmate participation Percent of inmates who had participated Activity after admission Religious 32% Self-improvement 20 Counseling 17 Pre-release 8 Arts and crafts 7 Outside community 3 Ethnic or racial 2 * Self-help programs--such as for parenting, job searching, and problem resolution--(20%) and individual or group counseling other than alcohol- or drug-related programs (17%) were the next most popular programs. * About 2% of the inmates reported joining an ethnic or racial organization such as the NAACP, the African American Black Culture Group, the Hispanic Committee, Aztlan, or Lakota. About 7 in 10 inmates had work assignments Percent of inmates ------------------ Work assignments 69% General janitorial 13 Food preparation 13 Maintenance, repair, or construction 9 Grounds and road maintenance 8 Library, barbershop, office, or other service 8 Goods production 4 Farming, forestry, or ranching 4 Laundry 3 Hospital or medical 1 Other 12 No work assignment 31% Inmates could report more than one work assignment. * About 10% of all inmates were assigned jobs outside the prison grounds, including 3% who performed grounds or road maintenance. * Prisoners were assigned to work assignments an average of 32 hours per week, including 67% who were occupied between 20 and 44 hours. Hours per Percent of inmates week with work assignments ------------------------------------- >7 hours 6% 7-19 8 20-34 19 35-44 27 45-84 9 Not assigned a job 31% About 68% of all inmates with work assignments were paid money, including 77% of those with production jobs Percent --------------------------------- Of working inmates paid ----------------------- Average Type Of all Nonmonetary pay per of work inmates Money compensation hour -------------------------------------------------------------- All 69% 68% 43% $ .56 Goods production 4% 77% 49% $ .84 Other work 65% 67% 43% $ .54 On-site 57 66 44 .38 Off-site 8 72 38 1.81 Figure 61 * The average wage was $0.56 per hour. * About 43% of inmates with work assignments received compensation other than money, such as good-time credit and extra privileges. Maximum security housing held 26% of all inmates; medium security, 49%; and minimum security, 23% Inmates in maximum security were nearly twice as likely as those in minimum security to be serving a sentence for a violent offense Percent of inmates, for each housing security level ------------------------------- Maximum Medium Minimum ------------------------------- Current offense Violent 62% 45% 34% Property 19 25 31 Drugs 14 22 29 Public-order 5 8 7 Prior sentences No prior sentences 20% 20% 18% Nonviolent current 5 7 9 Violent current 15 13 9 Recidivists 80% 80% 82% Nonviolent only 21 32 43 Prior violent only 10 14 12 Current violent only 23 19 15 Current and prior violent 26 16 12 Figure 62 (Figure 63) Minimum-security housing was more likely than maximum security to be holding inmates sentenced for a drug offense. The security classification of inmates' housing had little association with whether or not inmates had a prior record; however, whether or not inmates had been convicted of a violent offense was linked to the current housing arrangements. * About 4 in 5 inmates in maximum, medium, or minimum security facilities had prior sentences to probation or incarceration. * Maximum-security housing was more likely than other housing to hold prisoners with a history of sentences for violent offenses: 74% in maximum security had a current or prior sentence for a violent offense, compared to 62% in medium security and 48% in minimum security. State prisons in the South accounted for 39% of inmates; in the West, 22%; the Midwest, 21%; and the Northeast, 18% Percent of inmates within region: Northeast Midwest South West ---------------------------------- Current offense Violent 48% 51% 46% 42% Property 16 27 27 26 Drugs 30 16 20 23 Public-order 6 6 7 10 Prior sentences No priors 23% 20% 20% 14% Nonviolent current 10 6 6 5 Violent current 13 14 14 9 Recidivists 77% 80% 80% 86% Nonviolent only 27 29 33 36 Prior violent only 13 11 12 15 Current violent only 16 22 19 18 Current and prior violent 22 17 16 17 Figure 64 Inmates in the Northeast were more likely than Midwestern inmates to be serving time for a drug offense. * Inmates in the Northeast were the most likely to have had no prior convictions, while those in Western States were the most likely to be recidivists. Explanatory notes Methodology The 1991 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities was conducted for the Bureau of Justice Statistics by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Through personal interviews during June, July, and August 1991, data were collected on individual characteristics of prison inmates, current offenses and sentences, characteristics of victims, criminal histories, family background, gun possession and use, prior drug and alcohol use and treatment, educational programs and other services provided while in prison, and other personal characteristics. Similar surveys of State prison inmates were conducted in 1974, 1979, and 1986. Sample design The sample for the 1991 survey was selected from a universe of 1,239 State prisons that were enumerated in the 1990 Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities or had been opened after completion of the census. The sample design was a stratified two-stage selection. In the first stage correctional facilities were separated into two sampling frames: one for prisons with male inmates and one for prisons with female inmates. Prisons holding both sexes were included on both lists. Within each frame, prisons were stratified into eight strata defined by census region (Northeast, Midwest, South, and West) and facility type (confinement and community-based). All prisons with 1,950 or more men were selected from the male frame; and all prisons with 380 or more women were selected from the female frame. The remaining prisons in the male frame were grouped into equal size strata of approximately 2,600 males and then stratified by security level (maximum, medium, minimum, and unclassified). The remaining prisons in the female frame were also grouped into strata of approximately 574 females. A systematic sample of prisons was then selected within strata on each frame with probabilities proportional to the size of each prison. Overall, a total of 277 prisons were selected. In the second stage interviewers visited each selected facility and systematically selected a sample of male and female inmates using predetermined procedures. As a result, approximately 1 of every 52 male inmates and 1 of every 11 female inmates were selected. A total of 13,986 interviews were completed, yielding an overall response rate of 93.7%. Based on the completed interviews, estimates for the entire population were developed using weighting factors derived from the original probability of selection in the sample. These factors were adjusted for variable rates of nonresponse across strata and inmate characteristics. Further adjustments were made to control the survey estimates to midyear 1991 custody counts projected from data obtained in the National Prisoner Statistics series (NPS-1). Accuracy of the estimates The accuracy of the estimates presented in this report depends on two types of error: sampling and nonsampling. Sampling error is the variation that may occur by chance because a sample rather than a complete enumeration of the population was conducted. Nonsampling error can be attributed to many sources, such as nonresponse, differences in the interpretation of questions among inmates, recall difficulties, and processing errors. In any survey the full extent of the nonsampling error is never known. The sampling error, as measured by an estimated standard error, varies by the size of the estimate and the size of the base population. Estimates of the standard errors have been calculated for the 1991 survey. (See appendix table.) These estimates may be used to construct confidence intervals around percentages in this report. For example, the 95-percent confidence interval around the percentage of inmates who were in prison for a drug offense is approximately 21.4% plus or minus 1.96 times 0.5% (or 20.4% to 22.4%). These standard errors may also be used to test the significance of the difference between two sample statistics by pooling the standard errors of the two sample estimates. For example, the standard error of the difference between black and white inmates in the percent in prison for drug offenses would be 1.1% (or the square root of the sum of the squared standard errors for each group). The 95-percent confidence interval around the difference would be 1.96 times 1.1% (or 2.2%). Since the difference of 12.9% (24.9% minus 12.0%) is greater than 2.2%, the difference would be considered statistically significant. All comparisons discussed in this report were statistically significant at the 95-percent confidence level. To test the significance of comparisons not mentioned in the report, use percentages in text or tables and, when available, base numbers in the explanatory notes. The standard errors reported below should be used only for tests on all inmates. Comparisons of male and female inmates require different standard errors. Appendix table. Standard errors of the estimated percentages, State prison inmates, 1991 Estimated percentages Base of the --------------------------------------------------------- estimate 98 or 2 95 or 5 90 or 10 80 or 20 70 or 30 50 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1,000 4.9 7.7 10.6 14.1 16.2 17.7 5,000 2.2 3.4 4.7 6.3 7.2 7.9 10,000 1.6 2.4 3.4 4.5 5.1 5.6 25,000 1.0 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.2 3.5 50,000 0.7 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.5 100,000 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8 200,000 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 400,000 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 600,000 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.7 711,643 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Definitions Drugs The categories for drugs used without a prescription include the following: Marijuana: marijuana and hashish Cocaine/crack Heroin/opiates: heroin, opiates, and methadone Barbiturates: barbiturates and Quaaludes or downers Stimulants: amphetamines and methamphetamines Hallucinogens: LSD, PCP, and other hallucinogens Other drugs not categorized above included those such as designer drugs. About 3.5% of the inmates reported ever using these drugs. Offenses Figure 1 groups the offenses that inmates reported in 5 summary categories and 20 specific offense types. Most tables present the four summary categories--violent offenses, property offenses, drug offenses, and public-order offenses--but where more detail is needed, the summary categories with eight specific offenses are presented. In the reduced list of offenses, homicide includes murder and manslaughter. Also in the reduced list, sexual assault includes rape and sexual assault. Sexual assault contains assaults against women, children, and men. Public-order offenses include escape from custody, weapons offenses, driving while intoxicated, morals and decency, and commercialized vice. Usually other violent, other property, other drug, and other public-order offense categories are not presented separately, because they account for a small proportion of the overall categories. Other violent includes extortion, hit-and-run driving, and criminal endangerment. Other property includes destruction of property, trespassing, and possession of burglary tools. Other drug includes forged prescriptions, possession of drug paraphernalia, and unspecified drug violations. Other public-order includes driving while intoxicated, escape from custody, regulatory violations, and commercialized vice. Most serious offense. Inmates who were sentenced for more than one offense are categorized by the offense for which they received the longest sentence. Current offense. This was the most serious offense for which the inmate was serving a sentence. Prior offenses. The offenses for which an inmate was sentenced before the current offense. Race and Hispanic origin The three categories presented for race--white, black, and other--include only inmates describing themselves as non-Hispanic. Inmates with Asian, Native American, or Pacific Islander heritage were categorized as other because their small number would not permit a more detailed listing. Inmates who indicated that they were Hispanic included persons of all races. Where statistics for Hispanic inmates are reported with statistics for white or black inmates, the categories do not overlap. Hispanic inmates are compared to non-Hispanic white and black inmates. Black or white inmates. These inmates identified the race to which they belonged and reported having no Hispanic background. Hispanic inmates. These inmates, of any race, reported having a Hispanic background. Sentences and time in prison Collateral penalty. This is an additional obligation that a court places on a incarcerated defendant. Such penalties include fines, restitution to a victim, and participation in a treatment program. Maximum sentence. Inmates sentenced to a span of time, as in 5-to-15 years, are categorized by the maximum amount of time that they could serve. Time served. The estimate of the time served is calculated from the day of admission for the current sentence to the day of the interview, excluding any time the inmate was released. Inmates also reported the date when they expected to be released. When the reported date of release lacked the specific day or month, the 15th day or June was assigned. Types of inmates First-time inmates. Before their current conviction, these persons had never been sentenced to probation or incarceration, as a juvenile or adult. Nonviolent inmates. This category includes all inmates who were not serving time for any violent offense. Recidivists. These inmates had been convicted in the past as a juvenile or an adult and had served a previous sentence to probation or incarceration. Violent inmates. These inmates were serving time for a violent offense. In discussions of recidivism, violent inmates were those who had ever been convicted of a violent offense. Notes by page In many tables the detail may not add to the total or to a subtotal because of rounding. The weighted totals of inmates reporting valid data in 1991 are-- 711,643 for sex, race, Hispanic origin,and age 703,735 for marital status 710,546 for veteran status 706,173 for education 706,945 for work before arrest, and 521,765 for income. Figure 1 presents the total number of inmates, by offense. Figure 2 presents the total number of women and men for summary categories of offenses. Standard errors on variables distributed between male and female inmates cannot be calculated using the appendix table. Figure 3. Male inmates were more likely to be serving a sentence for a violent offense than for other offenses. Most serious Percent of inmates offense Male Female Violent 47% 32% Property 25 29 Drug 21 33 Public-order 7 6 Figure 4 presents the total number of inmates by race and Hispanic origin, distributed among the summary categories of offenses. Figure 5. In 1991 an estimated 62,904 inmates had a sentence to life in prison or to death. Figure 6. An estimated 246,636 white inmates, 315,861 black inmates, and 115,590 Hispanic inmates provided valid data on sentence length. Cumulative percent of inmates Violent Property Drug Public-order 1 year or less 1.0% 4.4% 4.5% 12.0% 2 years 3.7 16.8 15.8 30.1 4 11.7 37.5 40.3 51.1 6 21.6 55.1 59.3 69.9 8 27.6 63.1 67.0 74.9 10 37.4 74.4 77.7 83.0 15 50.7 84.5 86.1 90.5 20 60.5 90.0 92.0 93.1 More than 20 years 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number 323,064 171,446 146,803 46,590 A cumulative percentage is one that at each level includes the subtotal from the lower or earlier categories. In the graph for figure 9, for example, a reader can see where the line for violent inmates crosses the 10-year mark and that about 37% of inmates sentenced for a violent crime had a maximum sentence of 10 years or less. Figure 8. Number of inmates reporting Most sentence length serious --------------- offense Median Mean ------------------------------------- Total 690,721 627,522 Violent offenses 323,064 265,932 Murder 73,838 32,432 Manslaughter 12,642 12,302 Sexual assault 65,830 60,461 Robbery 102,642 97,357 Assault 56,313 54,247 Property offenses 171,446 169,822 Burglary 86,237 84,948 Larceny 33,265 33,242 Drug offenses 146,803 143,041 Possession 51,925 50,315 Trafficking 91,690 89,716 Public-order offenses 46,590 45,994 Number of inmates reporting time Most serious served to interview offense (median and mean) ------------------------------------ Total 82,540 Violent offenses 318,366 Murder 71,634 Manslaughter 12,693 Sexual assault 64,884 Robbery 101,686 Assault 55,664 Property offenses 169,052 Burglary 84,759 Larceny 33,118 Drug offenses 145,654 Possession 51,731 Trafficking 90,777 Public-order offenses 46,727 Number of inmates reporting Most time to release serious --------------- offense Median Mean ------------------------------------- Total 608,836 606,357 Violent offenses 272,796 271,453 Murder 51,287 50,766 Manslaughter 11,184 11,184 Sexual assault 58,182 58,016 Robbery 2,587 92,397 Assault 49,975 49,691 Property offenses 156,731 155,994 Burglary 78,249 77,983 Larceny 30,477 30,300 Drug offenses 134,101 133,874 Possession 47,138 47,138 Trafficking 84,172 83,945 Public-order offenses 42,899 42,738 Inmates reporting that they expected to be released on or before the year 2066 were included in the calculation of the mean time expected to be served. Figure 9. Number of inmates reporting sentence length ------------------------------ 1986 443,726 1991 697,596 White 247,516 Black 317,881 Hispanic 115,791 Figure 10. Median sentence --------------- Offense White Black ----------------------------------- Violent 120,422 149,003 Property 74,144 69,210 Drug 29,129 78,412 Public-order 20,021 16,584 Figure 11. The percentages noted on the chart are rounded. Mexico 47.1% Caribbean 26.3 Central and South America 14.0 Other 12.6 Number 31,287 Figure 12. Number of alien inmates reporting whether they had used drugs in the -------------------------- Drug Month before At the time --------------------------------------------- Cocaine/crack 27,465 23,433 Marijuana 29,055 25,266 Heroin/other opiates 29,154 27,985 Amphetamines/ methamphetamines 30,920 30,468 Hallucinogens 30,829 30,556 Barbiturates 30,932 30,750 Figure 13. Most serious offense Percent of alien inmates ------------ ------------------------ Violent offenses 34.5% Homicide 11.9 Sexual assault 6.0 Robbery 8.2 Assault 6.8 Property offenses 13.0% Burglary 7.9 Larceny/theft 2.3 Drug offenses 45.3% Possession 19.7 Trafficking 25.3 Public-order offenses 6.5 Number 31,287 Figure 14. Persons lived with most of the time while growing up Percent of inmates ---------------- ------------------ Both parents 43% Mother only 39 Father only 4 Other relative 11 Foster home/agency 2 Other 1 Number 711,643 Figure 15. The number of white inmates reporting whether or not family members had been incarcerated was 250,337; black inmates, 321,038; and Hispanic inmates, 117,594. Figure 16. 67% of the women and 56% of the men had a child or children under age 18. Percent of inmates Number of children ------------------ under age 18 Male Female ------------------ ------------------ None 44.1% 33.5% 1 24.2 24.8 2 16.2 19.9 3 8.5 12.1 4 or more 7.1 9.8 Figure 17. 94% of male and female inmates reported that the child(ren) were with the other parent or a grandparent. Percent of inmates With whom with minor children children under ------------------- age 18 lived Male Female -------------- ------------------- Mother/father 89.7% 25.4% Grandparents 9.9 50.6 Other relative/friend 3.3 24.0 Foster home/agency 2.1 10.3 Other 2.1 6.0 Inmates could report more than one category of caregivers for their children. Figure 18. An estimated 697,853 inmates reported valid data on recidivism. Figure 19. Among inmates with valid information on current and prior sentences, 28% of 38,117 women and 19% of 659,736 men, 22% of 116,280 Hispanics, 20% of 247,019 whites, and 17% of 318,025 blacks were serving their first sentence. Figure 20. The number of inmates reporting current offense and that they had no prior offenses was 134,131; that they had been convicted of a violent offense in the past, 209,315; and that they had not been convicted of a violent offense in the past, 354,407. Figure 21. Number of inmates reporting --------------------------- 1991 1986 Probation 703,187 446,988 Incarceration 707,055 439,980 Combined 699,059 436,770 Figure 22. 45% of prison inmates had 3 or more prior sentences to probation or incarceration. Number of prior sentences to probation or incarceration Percent of inmates ------------------------------------ None 20 % 1 19 2 16 3-5 26 6-10 13 11 or more 6 Number 699,059 The admission to prison of persons on probation or parole and the percentage on probation or parole for a violent crime were based on 307,382 inmates; the arrest for violent crime was based on an estimated 315,589 inmates. The description of revocation of parole was based on 163,686 inmates whose supervision in the community was formally revoked. The description of revocation of probation was based on 103,713 inmates whose supervision in the community was formally revoked. Figure 23. Number of inmates for median sentence Parole -------------------------------------------- No With new Without supervision Probation sentence sentence All 370,553 72,425 129,238 33,977 Violent 213,709 25,833 45,853 10,670 Property 63,797 21,588 44,328 12,726 Drug 75,233 17,060 26,162 7,436 Public-order 16,007 7,653 12,631 2,902 Figures 24-27. Number of violent inmates reporting ----------------- Total 315,968 Homicide 86,639 Sexual assault 65,432 Robbery 97,504 Assault 55,331 Male 285,656 Female 11,441 Under 25 56,592 25-34 131,682 35-44 70,423 45 or older 38,295 White 110,757 Black 136,568 Other 7,876 Hispanic 39,598 Figure 29. The chart percentages as presented are rounded. Of the estimated 311,180 violent inmates who reported how well they knew their victim(s), 49.9% had committed their offense against a stranger. Figure 30. Among violent inmates, 299,380 men and 11,800 women reported their relationship with their victim. Figure 31. Race and Number of violent Hispanic inmates reporting origin relationship to victim -------- ---------------------- White 117,049 Black 143,497 Other 8,232 Hispanic 42,403 Figure 32. Number of violent inmates reporting relationship to victim -------------------------------- White Black Other Hispanic Homicide 33,154 37,354 1,903 12,109 Sexual assault 37,122 18,578 1,956 6,660 Robbery 24,065 57,722 1,877 13,378 Assault 17,539 25,655 2,190 8,933 Figure 33. Number of violent inmates reporting valid data for relationship ----------------------------------- Under 25 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 or older All 131,113 111,635 40,240 21,394 Homicide 38,123 28,137 9,757 6,664 Sexual assault 17,605 23,312 12,445 9,197 Robbery 48,277 37,251 7,705 1,943 Assault 22,375 19,162 8,616 2,895 Figure 34. Number of violent inmates reporting Violent valid data for offense victim injuries --------------------------- All offenses 316,772 Sexual assault 65,355 Robbery 99,323 Assault 54,676 Among violent inmates who reported their offense and victim injury were 11,713 women and 295,370 men. Figure 35. 42% of violent inmates committed their offense at home or in their victim's home. Where the inmate committed the most serious Percent of violent offense violent inmates --------------------------------- Victim's home 28% Inmate's home 14 Commercial place 23 Public place 27 Elsewhere 8 Number reporting 316,273 Figure 36. There were 307,960 inmates who reported whether they carried or used a weapon when they committed the violent offense for which they were serving a sentence. Figure 37. Number of violent inmates reporting valid data -------------------- Murder 69,957 Manslaughter 12,379 Rape 24,029 Other sexual assault 40,395 Robbery 96,399 Assault 53,997 Figure 38. Number of Weapon used violent inmates ------------------------------ Gun 92,314 Knife 34,203 Other 14,229 Figure 39. Number of reporting ---------------------------- Violent Violent offense inmates Victims Both --------------------------------------------- All 317,417 312,792 317,675 Homicide 86,154 83,323 86,210 Sexual assault 65,148 64,745 65,285 Robbery 99,861 99,110 99,861 Assault 55,188 54,608 55,253 Figure 40. Firearm possession Number of and use reporting inmates ----------------------------------------------- Ever owned 708,540 Owned month before offense 711,094 Armed during offense 699,943 Fired gun during offense 700,050 Figure 41. An estimated 243,757 inmates had possessed a handgun and reported where they had most recently acquired the weapon. Figure 42. The total reporting characteristics of their groups of friends was 705,517. Figure 43. Number of inmates reporting size of gang ---------------------- Median Mean ---------------------- 5-6 41,791 38,032 3-4 37,587 36,661 2 37,893 37,631 1 81,492 81,324 Figure 44. Gang Number of inmates features reporting group activities --------------------------------------- 5-6 44,397 3-4 39,169 1-2 126,611 0 164,539 Figure 45. In 1991, 710,798 inmates reported whether they had ever used drugs, and 710,444 reported whether they had used regularly. Figure 46. In 1991, 710,241 inmates reported whether they had used a drug in the month before the offense, and 699,611 reported whether they were under the influence at the time of the offense. Figure 47. Percent of inmates --------------------------------- Pattern of Any Mari- Cocaine drug use drug juana or crack Opiates --------------------------------------------------- Ever 79% 74% 50% 25% Regularly 62 52 32 15 In month before the offense 50 32 25 10 At the time of the offense 31 11 14 6 Number of inmates reporting -------------------------------------- Pattern of Any Mari- Cocaine drug use drug juana or crack Opiates -------------------------------------------------------- Ever 710,798 708,121 708,115 708,237 Regularly 710,444 706,685 707,989 708,237 In month before the offense 710,241 705,896 707,793 708,179 At the time of the offense 699,611 699,938 707,403 708,115 Figures 48 and 49. Inmates who had used drugs in the month before the offense included those who committed their offense under the influence of drugs. Inmates reporting that they committed their offense to get money for drugs may have been in the other categories as well. The number of inmates giving valid responses about-- drug use in the month before the offense: 710,241 committing the offense under the influence of drugs: 699,611 committing the offense to get money for drugs: 696,677 Number of inmates reporting whether they had used drugs in the month before Age group the offense -------------------------------- 17 or younger 4,552 18-24 151,154 25-29 172,230 30-34 152,454 35-44 161,232 45-54 46,475 55 or older 22,144 Figure 50. Number of inmates reporting drugs used in the month before the offense Crack/cocaine 71,055 Cocaine 107,724 Another drug 175,422 No drug 356,040 Percent of inmates who in the month before the offense used Most ------------------------------- serious Powder Other No offense Crack cocaine drugs drugs Other violent <1% 2% 2% 2% Other property 8 6 7 8 Other drug 1 1 1 <1 Figure 52. Reporting on whether they had participated in a drug treatment program were an estimated 698,777 inmates--698,658 also reporting on use of drugs ever in the past and 698,332 reporting on use of drugs in the month before their offense. Figure 53. Percent of ---------------------------- Type of Inmates who drug program used drugs in participation All the month before since admission inmates the offense ---------------------------------------------- In-patient 7% 11% Group 22 32 individual 3 5 Peer group 8 12 Drug education 4 7 Number of inmates reporting 698,777 698,332 Inmates reported on all types of drug program participation during their current prison term. Whenever an inmate listed more than one program category, the interviewer asked if a mentioned program was conducted separately from the previously reported programs. Programs integral to other drug treatment efforts were not counted for figure 53; programs identified as separate were included. For example, if a prisoner participated as an in-patient and reported that drug education was a part of the in-patient treatment, that drug education was not entered separately. Therefore, the 4% of inmates who had been educated about the effects of drugs had not received that education as a part of any other prison drug program. Since admission, 59% of inmates who had ever used drugs and 52% of those who had used drugs in the month before their offense had not participated in any drug treatment program. Figure 56. The number of inmates who committed their offense under the influence of alcohol was 127,096; under the influence of drugs only, 117,671; and under the influence of both drugs and alcohol, 97,690. Inmates who had been drinking before their offense and who reported the amount drunk: Total (217,693), violent (116,302), property (52,757), drugs (26,341), and public-order (19,966). Figure 58. Inmates sentenced for property or public-order offenses had the highest rate of participation in alcohol-abuse programs. Percent of inmates who had ever participated in a prison-sponsored Offense alcohol abuse program ---------------------------------------------- Violent 34.8% Property 40.4 Drug 28.0 Public-order 48.6 The percentages of participating inmates were based on 558,782 inmates who reported ever drinking. Inmates who reported never drinking (143,176) and drinking inmates who had committed an offense not included in the summary categories (9,685) were not included. Figure 59. The number of inmates reporting on their prison program participation as 711,643. Figure 60. Of the inmates reporting on their participation in prison educational or vocational programs were 658,893 men and 37,458 women. Inmates reporting on program participation could report more than one program. The percentages of inmates with work assignments and of hours worked were based on 711,643 inmates responding. Figure 61. The percentage of all inmates was based on 711,643 inmates; of those inmates who worked and were paid money, 471,308; and of inmates who worked for nonmonetary compensation, 203,705. The average pay per hour was calculated from 293,492 inmates who reported a valid income. Figures 62 and 64. Number of inmates reporting Security -------------------- level Current Prior and region offense offenses ------------------------------------ Maximum 182,787 180,687 Medium 348,156 345,331 Minimum 161,584 160,247 Northeast 122,778 121,633 Midwest 148,953 146,991 South 274,769 272,948 West 157,681 156,043 Figure 63. The higher the housing security level, the larger the percentage of violent inmates. Percent of inmates Security level ------------------ and type of First- current offense time Recidivist -------------------------------------- Maximum (180,687) Violent 14.9% 59.4% Nonviolent 4.5 21.2 Medium (345,331) Violent 13.2% 48.4% Nonviolent 6.6 31.8 Minimum (160,247) Violent 9.3% 38.4% Nonviolent 8.8 43.5